Closing Minds: The Intellectual Repression of Reason Among Muslim Puritans

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 16 November 2024 The emergence of Wahhabism in the 18th century, led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), has left an indelible mark on the Muslim world and beyond. Advocating a strict and literal interpretation of Islam, Wahhabism has influenced social, political, and educational systems, particularly in regions under its ideological sway. While proponents argue that Wahhabism represents a return to “pure” Islam, critics contend that its legacy fosters intellectual suppression, discourages scientific inquiry, and contributes to a culture of extremism. This essay examines the suppression of rationality and science within Wahhabi ideology, its historical trajectory, and the far-reaching consequences for individuals, communities, and global intellectual development. Literal Interpretation of the Quran Wahhabism’s core principle lies in its insistence on a literal interpretation of the Quran, rejecting the nuanced and rationalist approaches traditionally employed by classical Islamic scholars. Unlike earlier Islamic thinkers who employed ijtihad (independent reasoning) and Ta’wil (allegorical interpretation), Wahhabism adheres to a rigid literalism. This stance disallows any intellectual exploration beyond surface-level meanings, stifling philosophical, theological, and scientific inquiry. By emphasizing the "purity" of the Quran through this literalist lens, Wahhabism limits the scope for diverse interpretations and intellectual engagement with both religious and secular fields. Wahhabism’s antagonism toward Sufism, a mystical and intellectual tradition within Islam, is a cornerstone of its rejection of intellectual engagement. Sufism, with its emphasis on inner spiritual knowledge and philosophical reflection, is seen by Wahhabis as promoting shirk (polytheism). This condemnation of Sufism deprives the movement of a rich source of intellectual and spiritual depth, further narrowing its ideological framework and reinforcing its focus on ritual purity over intellectual exploration. Wahhabism places a significant emphasis on ritual purity and adherence to strict codes of behaviour. This puritanical focus detracts from intellectual pursuits, creating a religious culture that prioritizes conformity over curiosity. In such an environment, scientific, philosophical, and rational endeavours are viewed as distractions from religious obligations, fostering a culture that resists engagement with the wider world of knowledge. Stifling Intellectual Growth and Radicalization The anti-intellectual climate fostered by Wahhabism has led to a stunted intellectual environment in regions under its influence. Educational systems, driven by Wahhabi principles, prioritize religious conformity over inquiry, undermining the development of critical thinking and scientific literacy. As a result, fields like mathematics, medicine, and natural sciences have been marginalized, hindering intellectual and technological progress. Wahhabism’s rejection of secular knowledge and its insistence on a literalist interpretation of religious texts have created an insular worldview that limits engagement with global intellectual and scientific advancements. This intellectual isolationism not only deprives adherents of opportunities to contribute to global progress but also fosters an environment of mistrust and misunderstanding between Wahhabi-influenced societies and the broader world. Wahhabism’s rigid interpretation of Islam and its rejection of intellectual diversity have contributed to the radicalization of certain Islamist movements. By framing Western ideas and scientific knowledge as threats to Islamic purity, Wahhabi-influenced groups have fostered an environment conducive to extremism. This radicalization is partly a result of the movement’s anti-rational stance, which eliminates opportunities for dialogue and reconciliation with alternative viewpoints. Wahhabi Subversion of Intellectual Legacy of the Mutazilites Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767 CE) stands as a towering figure in the development of Islamic jurisprudence, particularly within the rationalist tradition. His school, the Hanafi madhhab, laid the cornerstone for an intellectual approach to Islamic law, one that valued reasoning and context over rigid, literal adherence to textual sources. This method of thought, however, stretched far beyond the realm of jurisprudence, reaching deep into theology, where scholars wrestled with reconciling faith with rational inquiry. In Iraq, the Mutazilites—a group of scholars dedicated to the rationalist tradition—rose to prominence, addressing not only legal issues but also the fundamental questions of theology: the nature of God, revelation, and human existence. These intellectuals, whose minds were steeped in diverse traditions, including Greek philosophy, sought to prove that Islamic faith and reason were not just compatible but intrinsically aligned, like two sides of the same coin. The Mutazilites were, in many ways, the intellectual heirs to Abu Hanifa’s approach to jurisprudence. Most of them adhered to the Hanafi school of law, while others, including some Shiites, embraced Mutazilite theology, unified by a shared commitment to reason as the guiding light of belief. At the heart of Mutazilite thought lay a firm belief in the concept of free will, a cornerstone borrowed from the Qadari school of thought. But this was more than a theological preference; it was, for the Mutazilites, a logical necessity, rooted in God’s fundamental attribute: justice. If God were truly just, they reasoned, then human beings must possess free will to make moral choices. In their view, humans were the “creators of their deeds,” and it was through these choices that individuals would be held accountable in the afterlife, a notion that emphasized moral responsibility as an essential facet of divine justice. The Mutazilites’ conception of God’s justice was a direct rejection of any claim that God might act unjustly. For them, to suggest that God could act outside the bounds of justice—no matter how much power He wielded—was not a reflection of divine omnipotence but a direct insult to His very nature. For the Mutazilites, God’s justice was not a mere attribute; it was the very essence of His being. The notion that God could act unjustly, even theoretically, was inconceivable, not due to a lack of power, but because it would undermine the sanctity of His divinity. Their understanding was a call to align the human understanding of morality with divine principles, seeing justice and goodness as unshakable pillars upon which the edifice of faith stood. (Fakhry, p.47) The rationalist outlook of the Mutazilites extended far beyond theological questions, reaching into their understanding of the universe itself. They believed that God's creation operated according to rational laws that could be deciphered through scientific inquiry—an intellectual stance that invited the pursuit of knowledge. They saw no contradiction between faith and reason; for them, the two were partners in the quest for truth. It was this very rationalist foundation that allowed the intellectual blossoming of the medieval Islamic world, which gave birth to advances in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Without this rational spirit, there would have been no “Islamic Aristotelianism,” and, as the historian Fakhry notes, “without Islamic Aristotelianism there would certainly be no Christian Aristotelianism.” It was the works of figures like Avicenna and Averroes that helped weave Islamic rationalism into the very fabric of Western intellectual history. (Fakhry, p.49) However, this rationalist ethos was not without its critics. Opponents of the Mutazilites argued that by attempting to define justice and morality through human reason, they were placing limits on God's absolute sovereignty. For these critics, justice was not a principle to be defined by human logic, but by God’s will alone. Whatever God decreed, they argued, was inherently just, even if it meant condemning all of humanity to eternal punishment for no reason. Justice, in their view, was not a standard outside of God’s will but was defined by whatever He chose to do. This theological stance stood in stark contrast to the Mutazilites, who believed that to claim God could act unjustly was to reduce the grandeur of His divine essence. From the intellectual soil of the Mutazilite tradition sprouted the golden age of Islamic civilization, a time when the thirst for knowledge was unquenched, and the mind was free to roam. The rationalist framework fostered a culture of inquiry that not only embraced the pursuit of knowledge but placed it at the heart of religious and intellectual life. Yet, as the centuries passed, this vibrant intellectual tradition was challenged by movements such as Wahhabism. Emerging in the 18th century as a reaction against perceived deviations from traditional Islam, Wahhabism’s strict adherence to hadith literature and its rejection of rational inquiry created a climate hostile to intellectual exploration. In rejecting reason and scientific progress, Wahhabism dealt a blow to the intellectual legacy of earlier Islamic scholars, dampening the once-thriving intellectual landscape. The rationalist tradition forged by figures like Abu Hanifa and nurtured by the Mutazilites was a pivotal force in shaping both Islamic theology and the broader intellectual culture of the medieval Islamic world. Their insistence on the compatibility of faith and reason laid the bedrock for ground-breaking scientific and philosophical achievements that would leave an indelible mark on both the Islamic world and the West. But with the rise of anti-rationalist movements like Wahhabism, this intellectual legacy was threatened, as the rejection of reason and inquiry began to overshadow the rational spirit that once propelled the Islamic world into an era of unprecedented intellectual flourishing. The pendulum of intellectual inquiry swung, and in the process, the intellectual richness of the past was all too often buried under the weight of dogmatism. From its inception, Wahhabism has opposed the intellectual traditions of Islamic philosophy and science. It criticizes the contributions of figures like al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd, who integrated Islamic thought with rational philosophy and empirical science. This rejection of Islamic intellectual heritage has cultivated an environment where logic, metaphysics, and natural sciences are viewed with suspicion. As a result, educational systems under Wahhabi influence prioritize religious orthodoxy over critical thinking, leading to an intellectual climate that neglects scientific and philosophical advancement. While Wahhabism initially rejected Taqlid (blind imitation) in favour of personal interpretation, the movement paradoxically evolved into a rigid orthodoxy itself. This shift from encouraging independent reasoning to enforcing strict conformity to Wahhabi doctrine mirrors a broader tendency within the movement to suppress intellectual diversity. In this context, Wahhabism’s original stance on independent reasoning has transformed into an insular, doctrinaire rigidity, further reinforcing its anti-rational tendencies. The extreme dependence on Hadith and traditionalism within Wahhabist ideology fostered an atmosphere that was deeply anti-intellectual. This rigid adherence to tradition stifled critical thinking and intellectual exploration. One striking example of this mind-set can be seen in the views attributed to Ibn Baz, a prominent Wahhabi scholar. He is often said to have believed that the Earth was flat, a notion that reflects the intellectual constraints of his worldview. In an interview, author Robert Lacey recounts how Ibn Baz mused on the practical aspects of daily life, suggesting that we operate as though the ground beneath us is flat. This line of thinking led him to publicly espouse this belief, a stance for which he became notorious. As Lacey notes, Ibn Baz’s willingness to voice such a view underscores the broader intellectual climate fostered by Wahhabism, where rigid traditionalism overshadowed scientific inquiry and critical thought. (Lacey, pp. 89–90, 352). Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s writings form the bedrock of Wahhabi ideology. His denunciation of saint veneration, intercession, and other practices he deemed innovations (Bid’ah) laid the groundwork for an ideological framework that rejected any form of intellectual or spiritual development that deviated from his interpretation of monotheism. His ideas reinforced a worldview where intellectual engagement with the wider world was perceived as a threat to Islamic purity. The rise of Saudi Arabia as a nation-state in the 20th century provided a political foundation for the spread of Wahhabism. As the official religious doctrine of the Saudi state, Wahhabi teachings permeated the country’s educational, religious, and cultural institutions. This institutionalization of Wahhabi ideology not only affected Saudi society but also influenced global Islamist movements, spreading its anti-rational and anti-scientific ideas far beyond the Arabian Peninsula. Wahhabism’s emphasis on doctrinal purity and rejection of intellectualism has shaped contemporary Islamist movements, particularly those that adhere to extremist interpretations of Islam. These movements, echoing Wahhabi ideology, advocate a return to the practices of early Islam, often in opposition to modernity, scientific inquiry, and secular knowledge. Reviving Rationalism and Scientific Inquiry in Islam In response to the challenges posed by Wahhabi extremism, various reform movements within the Muslim world have emerged, advocating for an interpretation of Islam that values rationalism, intellectual exploration, and scientific progress. These movements highlight Islam’s rich history of contributions to science, philosophy, and medicine, emphasizing the need to revive this intellectual legacy to address modern challenges effectively. One of the most significant barriers posed by Wahhabi ideology is its prioritization of rigid traditionalism over innovation and intellectual exploration. This approach fosters an educational environment resistant to critical inquiry and dismissive of modern scientific advancements. Reform movements are addressing this issue by modernizing educational systems to integrate contemporary subjects alongside traditional religious teachings. Revised curricula aim to foster critical thinking, problem-solving, and a scientific mind-set, encouraging students to question assumptions and engage with global knowledge. These reforms strive to produce a more holistic understanding of the world, balancing religious values with the demands of modern life. In regions influenced by Wahhabism, STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields have often been overshadowed by a focus on religious studies aligned with traditional interpretations of Islam. Reformers are working to elevate the status of STEM education by establishing specialized research institutions, scholarships, and advanced training programs. This revitalization seeks to empower a new generation of scientists, engineers, and innovators who can contribute to their local communities and the global economy. By aligning education with the modern world's demands, these efforts challenge the intellectual stagnation that has hindered progress in some parts of the Muslim world. Central to countering Wahhabi extremism is the promotion of intellectual autonomy. Wahhabi ideology discourages critical inquiry, emphasizing unquestioning adherence to tradition. Reform initiatives aim to reverse this trend by introducing logic, philosophy, and scientific reasoning into educational curricula and community programs. These efforts emphasize the importance of analysing diverse perspectives, questioning preconceived notions, and reinterpreting historical and religious texts in light of contemporary understanding. By fostering an environment that values independent thought, reformers aim to empower individuals to navigate complex global challenges with creativity and confidence. Reinterpreting Religious Teachings Reformists argue that Islam’s core values—knowledge, justice, and human welfare—are compatible with modern scientific and technological advancements. By revisiting the intellectual traditions of the Golden Age of Islam, reform movements challenge the narrow interpretations propagated by Wahhabism. This reinterpretation emphasizes the coexistence of faith and reason, promoting an inclusive understanding of Islam that embraces modernity and aligns with universal values, including human rights and the pursuit of knowledge. Interfaith dialogue plays a crucial role in bridging divides and promoting mutual understanding. By emphasizing the alignment of Islam with rational thought and scientific inquiry, these efforts encourage a more inclusive approach to intellectual and cultural engagement, helping to overcome the barriers created by Wahhabi extremism. The suppression of intellectual inquiry and scientific progress by Wahhabi extremism has hindered the cultural and intellectual growth of the Muslim world. However, reform movements advocating for rationalism, education, and scientific inquiry offer a pathway to a more inclusive and progressive future. 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Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/islamic-society/intellectual-repression-reason-muslim-puritans/d/133726 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism