The Maulvi of Faizabad and the Battle for Lucknow: Jihad in 1857 and Shaping New Islam in South Asia

By Grace Mubashir, New Age Islam 9 July 2024 The Siege of Lucknow Was Not Only a Military Conflict but Also a Symbol of the Broader Struggle Against British Colonialism. It Highlighted the Manipulation and Oppression Faced by Indian Rulers and Common People Alike, While Also Showcasing the Potential for Unity Across Religious and Cultural Lines in The Fight for Independence, Shaping New Religious Imaginations in South Asia and Beyond. Main Points: 1. Ahmadullah Shah is a significant yet often overlooked figure in the history of India's freedom movement, particularly in the Revolt of 1857 2. British historians have often labelled these groups broadly as jihadis, brigands, or Wahhabis, overlooking the nuanced differences among them 3. Ahmadullah Shah's ideology, while rooted in his Sufi beliefs, was inclusive, advocating for Hindu-Muslim unity against the British 4. the conflict was not merely a religious clash between Christianity and the indigenous religions but a struggle to defend territory from an alien ruler employing religious conversions to consolidate control ------ Ahmadullah Shah is a significant yet often overlooked figure in the history of India's freedom movement, particularly in the Revolt of 1857. British historians, though grudgingly, have acknowledged his valour and leadership. Shah was a multifaceted personality—cleric, Sufi saint, army general, and a visionary leader. His rise as a key figure in the 1857 Revolt is crucial, driven by religious fervour among both Hindus and Muslims against aggressive Christian proselytising. Despite his importance, confusion persists about the Muslim religious groups involved in the revolt. British historians have often labelled these groups broadly as Jihadis, brigands, or Wahhabis, overlooking the nuanced differences among them. However, modern historians like William Dalrymple have begun to explore these distinctions more deeply. Ahmadullah Shah and his followers viewed their struggle as jihad, but their motivations included resistance against coercive rulers rather than purely religious hatred for Christians. Post-independence Indian historians have largely neglected Ahmadullah Shah's contributions, which could have clarified the distinctions among various insurgent groups. Although British chroniclers like P.J.O. Taylor have recognized Shah as a capable and humane leader, he remains an enigmatic figure in Indian history, underrepresented in historical narratives and textbooks. His significant role in the uprisings around Lucknow, the capital of Awadh and the epicentre of the 1857 Revolt, underscores his impact during this critical period. The Rift Between the Ulema and The British: The Genesis Before delving into Ahmadullah Shah's role in the 1857 Revolt, it's crucial to understand the deep-seated hostility between the British rulers and the Muslim clergy in India, which peaked in the mid-19th century. The late 18th century was a period of significant turmoil for Hindu and Muslim middle-class society. Among Muslims, the call for jihad against British rule was initially raised by Shah Abdul Aziz, son of the religious reformer Shah Waliullah. Shah Waliullah (1703–1762) was a mystic, scholar, and social reformer who advocated for reform in Indian Islam. His Walliullahi Movement aimed to discard social practices influenced by indigenous and Persian traditions, which he believed conflicted with Islamic fundamentals. He promoted a rational approach to interpreting Islam, synthesizing Sufism with ijtihad (independent judgment) and emphasizing monotheism. Shah Waliullah’s son, Shah Abdul Aziz (1746–1824), continued his father's legacy. In 1803, he issued a landmark fatwa declaring British-ruled India as Dar al-Harb (land ruled by an enemy of Islam), providing religious sanction for jihad. This was a reaction to the aggressive proselytizing by Christian missionaries, supported by the British East India Company, which threatened both Hindu and Muslim religious beliefs. Shah Aziz's fatwa described the pervasive control of Christian officers over Delhi and the systematic erosion of Islamic authority, marking British rule as a land of conflict for Muslims. Although the fatwa did not incite immediate action, it sowed seeds of discontent among Muslims. This simmering discontent eventually culminated in the widespread participation of Muslims in the 1857 Revolt against the British. Shah Abdul Aziz's fatwa became a foundational document for those advocating jihad, highlighting the deep-rooted religious and social tensions that fuelled the insurgency against British colonial rule in 19th-century India. The 1857 Siege of Lucknow was a significant episode during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule. It unfolded in a city with a rich historical and cultural backdrop shaped by the events and personalities leading up to it. The Rise of Lucknow Lucknow's transformation into a major cultural centre began in 1775 when Prince Asaf-ud-Daula ascended the throne of Awadh, succeeding his father Shuja-ud-Daula. Asaf-ud-Daula moved the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow, laying the foundation for its development into a hub of art, culture, and architecture. Under his reign, Lucknow became known for its luxury, fine arts, and syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims coexisted harmoniously. Despite his contributions to the cultural enrichment of Lucknow, Asaf-ud-Daula's rule was marred by political weakness and indulgence, which the British East India Company exploited. The British forced him to sign a treaty that ceded half of his kingdom, diminishing his power and revenues significantly. This set a precedent for British manipulation in Awadh, leading to further treaties and power grabs. After Asaf-ud-Daula's death in 1797, the British continued to interfere in Awadh's succession, installing puppet rulers like Sadat Ali Khan. This undermined the autonomy of Awadh's native rulers and increased local resentment. By 1856, the British decided to abolish the Nawabship entirely, exiling the last Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah, and declaring Awadh under direct British rule. This act of annexation deeply humiliated the people of Awadh, setting the stage for widespread discontent. Ahmadullah Shah and the Call to Revolt Amidst this atmosphere of distress, Ahmadullah Shah emerged as a significant revolutionary figure. A Sufi mystic known as the "Maulvi of Faizabad," Shah began advocating for jihad against British rule. His spiritual gatherings in Lucknow attracted a large following, where he combined religious teachings with calls for political action. Tensions in Awadh escalated when Ahmadullah Shah, imprisoned in Faizabad for his anti-British activities, was freed by a mob in June 1857. This act galvanized the local population, and Shah quickly became a key leader of the rebel forces. The Battle of Chinhat On June 30, 1857, British forces led by Sir Henry Lawrence attempted a pre-emptive strike against the rebels near Chinhat, just outside Lucknow. Ahmadullah Shah's forces, strategically positioned, launched a surprise attack, resulting in heavy British casualties and forcing them to retreat to the Residency in Lucknow. This victory for the rebels marked the beginning of the Siege of Lucknow. The siege itself was marked by intense fighting and a protracted defence by the British garrison in the Residency. The initial victory at Chinhat imbued the rebels, under Ahmadullah Shah's command, with a sense of invincibility. The siege continued for months, becoming one of the most notable episodes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Ahmadullah Shah's ideology, while rooted in his Sufi beliefs, was inclusive, advocating for Hindu-Muslim unity against the British. His approach contrasted with the British strategy of divide and rule, which aimed to exploit religious differences to maintain control. The unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims in Awadh during the rebellion was a precursor to the secular foundations of modern India. Conclusion Ahmadullah Shah, facing mounting pressures, withdrew from Lucknow and moved to Bari near Sitapur with his loyal supporters. There, he allied with Begum Hazrat Mahal, who led the forces loyal to the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Initially reluctant, Ahmadullah Shah was eventually persuaded by Birjis Qadr, the Nawab's successor, who became his spiritual disciple. At this point, Ahmadullah Shah became the de facto ruler of Awadh. However, the British enlisted the Gorkha army of Nepal to counter the rebels. Despite demonstrating bravery in skirmishes, Ahmadullah Shah was betrayed by some officers loyal to Birjis Qadr who preferred plundering over consolidating control. This betrayal led to a critical defeat at Bari, forcing Ahmadullah Shah to retreat to Mohammadi near Shahjahanpur. In Mohammadi, Ahmadullah Shah solidified his support, culminating in his formal coronation on 15 March 1858, where he was declared the ruler of Awadh and issued coins in his name. He forged alliances with the Rohillas of Bareilly, led by Nawab Bahadur Khan, and rebel leader Azimullah Khan. Despite initial success, his efforts to change the course of history were thwarted by further betrayal. The Raja of Pawayan, at the behest of the British, invited Ahmadullah Shah into a trap, leading to his death. The British rewarded the Raja with a sum of ₹50,000 for his treachery. Ahmadullah Shah's story highlights the complex dynamics of the anti-colonial uprising in India. As a religious scholar, Sufi, and jihadi, his struggle was infused with religious fervour, invoking jihad to inspire Muslims. However, the conflict was not merely a religious clash between Christianity and the indigenous religions but a struggle to defend territory from an alien ruler employing religious conversions to consolidate control. ----- A regular columnist for NewAgeIslam.com, Mubashir V.P is a PhD scholar in Islamic Studies at Jamia Millia Islamia and freelance journalist. 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