Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Five: The Great Conqueror

By Moin Qazi, New Age Islam 18 August 2023 Amongst the nations before your time, there have been inspired people(who were not Prophets), and if there is one amongst my Ummah, he is Umar - Prophet Muhammad The Great Conqueror Umar's caliphate is notable for its vast conquest. With the aid of brilliant field commanders, Umar was able to incorporate present-day Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan, much of the Armenia, Georgia, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt, Byzantine and part of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and southwestern Pakistan into the Caliphate. During his reign, the Byzantines lost more than three-fourths of their territory and in Persia, the Sassanid Empire ceased to exist. Islam was a powerful link in the smooth flow of Western civilization from its Graeco-Roman origins to its more recent European and American manifestations. Instead, at its zenith, the ‘Abbasid caliphate stretched over the entire Middle East and part of North Africa and influenced Islamic regimes as far west as Spain. Bennison’s examination of the politics, society, and culture of the ‘Abbasid period presents a picture of a society that nurtured many of the “civilized” values that Western civilization claims to represent, albeit in different premodern forms - from urban planning and international trade networks to religious pluralism and academic research. Umar’s reign is also acclaimed for his administrative reforms, which began the process of turning Muhammad’s band of followers into a functioning political entity that would be able to govern a vast empire. Less than a hundred years after the death of Muhammad in A.D. 632, his followers had burst out of the Arabian Desert to conquer and create an empire whose glory was to shine for a thousand years. Braving themselves like a cavalry of God, the Muslims spread the faith through their new converts from vanquished territories. Devout Arab traders later carried their faith to Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and the Philippines. Other traders introduced the Qur’an to black tribes of Africa that lived south of the Sahara Desert. Umar had not so much to stimulate conquest as to organize and channel it. He chose as leaders who were skilful managers experienced in trade and commerce as well as warfare and imbued with an ideology that provided their activities with a cosmic significance. The total numbers involved in the initial conquests may have been relatively small, perhaps less than 50,000, divided into numerous shifting groups. Yet few actions took place without any sanction from the Medinan government or one of its appointed commanders. The fighters, or Muqātilah, could generally accomplish much more with Medina’s support than without. The renaissance in early Islam was very swift and was driven by very high ethical standards. The extraordinary nobility of Prophet Muhammad and the early Caliphs captivated the world and the new religion drew adherents at an unparalleled rate. By Muhammad’s death in 632, Islam was well established as the faith of Arabia. Within a century, its sway extended from Spain to India. The Islamic civilization produced globally unparalleled literature, science, philosophy, theological discourse, architecture, and cultural influences - influences so strong that they made European nobles want to dress like Muslims.Unlike the Byzantines, with their suspicion of classical science and philosophy, the Muslims were actively enjoined by the traditions - the dicta of the Prophet - to “seek learning, though it is in China.” Another well-known rule states: “The search for knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim”; another that “The ink of scholars is worth more than the blood of martyrs.” Just as important as the extent of Umar’s conquests is their permanence. Although its population converted to Islam, Iran eventually regained its independence from Arab rule. But Syria, Iraq and Egypt never did. Those countries became thoroughly Arabized and remain so to this day. Umar had to devise policies for the proper administration of the great empire which was very diverse politically, culturally and socially.He decided that the Arabs were to be a privileged military caste in the regions they had conquered and that they should live in garrison cities, apart from the natives. The subject peoples were to pay tribute to their Muslim (largely Arab) conquerors but were otherwise to be left in peace. In particular, they were not to be forcibly converted to Islam. More than 1,400 years after his reign, Umar is still remembered as a man of compassion, piety and justice. Drawing on these principles, Umar treated all those under his care equally, irrespective of whether they were rich or poor, black or white, powerful or weak. He feared that God would question him about his actions. He was always worried that there may be sick or poor people among the believers that he may have neglected. Despite the high office he held, Umar was so deeply concerned about his responsibility towards his subjects that once when a bridge was being built across a river, Umar wanted the construction to be absolutely defect-free lest he might have to answer for even the slightest injury to any living being on account of any snag during the process of construction. Umar’s rule is replete with instances of his piety and commitment to justice. During Umar’s rule as Caliph, building on the precepts of Abu Bakr, the Islamic empire expanded to occupy lands of the Persian and Byzantine empires, and the Sassanid dynasty. The caliphate was organized under a unified sovereign authority, formed by different provinces ruled by provincial Governors selected by the Caliph. On his election as Caliph, Umar was faced with the geopolitical situation in West Asia which required immediate attention. The Arabian Peninsula is a vast desert, except for its southwestern tip near Najran and Yemen, where the monsoons bring in the rain from the Indian Ocean and make the area fertile. To the north, the extent of the desert is marked by the Jordan River, which separates it from the hills of Palestine and Lebanon. To the east, its boundaries are marked by the Euphrates. The area between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris is calledthe Jazira (island). This area, known in ancient times as Mesopotamia, was called Iraq e Arab in the early Islamic period. The waters of the two rivers irrigate this area and have made it the cradle of civilizations. In the east of the river Tigris, the land gradually rises into the Persian Plateau leading into the heartland of ancient Fars. The Arabs called this area Iraq e Ajam and it included the Farsi (Persian) speaking areas of Khuzistan, Hamadan, Fars, Persepolis, Isfahan, Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Makran and Baluchistan. A study of the military operation would reveal the factors which spurred the sweeping victories of Muslims in such a short period. During the reign of the second Caliph, Muslims ruled over an area of 22530 square miles which included Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Persia, Khurzistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kirman, Khorasan, Mekran and part of Baluchistan. A handful of ill-equipped and unskilled Arabs had overthrown two of the mightiest Empires of the world. The teachings of the Prophet of Islam had infused a new spirit in the adherents of the new faith, who fought simply for the sake of God. The wise policy followed by the second Caliph of Islam in the selection of his generals and liberal terms offered to the conquered races were instrumental in the lightning victories scored by Muslims. Umar was a great military strategist; he issued detailed instructions on the conduct of operations. A perusal of the history of Tabari would reveal that Umar, sitting thousands of miles away, guided his armies on the battlefronts and monitored and directed their movements. The rigid hand he kept upon his most popular generals indicates his extraordinary capacity to rule and govern a vast sprawling empire. Through his letters to his generals, he endeavoured incessantly to goad his warriors towards excellence and merit. He believed it would enhance the morale of the armed forces. The Persian and Byzantine empires held the balance of power in the region with the Euphrates River as the historical divide between their respective areas of influence. Persia also controlled Yemen and the territories along the Red Sea north to Makkah and Madinah. The emergence of Islam and the unification of the Arabs altered this balance of power. It was a situation that neither the Byzantinians nor the Persians could ignore. Khosroe, the emperor of Persia, was on record as having ordered an assault on Madinah. The Byzantinians had attacked the northern frontier and killed the Muslim general Zaid bin Haris (632). Border clashes began during the Abu Bakr's caliphate between the newborn Islamic state and the two superpowers. The triumph of Umar over the mighty empires of Persia and Byzantium within a brief span of ten years is one of the most remarkable stories in military history. Treaty with the Jews In Jerusalem, Umar agreed with Christians giving them the security of life, propertyand freedom of religion. This is referred to as Umar’s Covenant; it stipulates the following conditions: In the name of Allah, Ever Gracious, Most Merciful. This is the covenant of peace that Umar, the servant of God and the commander of the faithful, has made with the people of Elia (Jerusalem). This charter which is vouchsafed to them guarantees them the protection of life, property, churches, crosses, and those that set up, display and honour these crosses. Their churches shall not be used as dwellings, nor destroyed, nor shall they or their compounds, their crosses and their belongings be diminished in any way. They shall not be subjected to persecution in matters about their religion, nor shall they be in any way annoyed. No Jew shall dwell with them in Jerusalem. It is incumbent on the people of Jerusalem that they should pay the jizyah as people of other towns do. They must turn out the Greeks and the robbers. Whoever of the Greeks leaves the town, his life and property shall be protected till he should reach a place of safety. Whoever should stay in Jerusalem, shall be protected and he must pay jizyah like the rest of the inhabitants. Whoever should wish to go away with the Greeks and take his property, shall leave behind their churches and crucifixes, there is protection for them as well. Their lives, properties, churches and crosses shall be protected till they reach a place of safety. There shall be no payment of tribute till the harvest is gathered in. Whatever is contained in this deed is under the covenant of God and His Messenger, and under the guarantees of his successors and the faithful, as long as the inhabitants pay the jizyah. Witnessed by: Khalida bin Walid, Amr ibn al-As, Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, and Muawiyah ibn Sufiyan. Later he visited Bethlehem and prayed in the church of Nativity. The following incident is recorded in Le Strange’s book, Palestine Under the Muslims. It is reported that when he was in Bait Lahm, a monk approached him and said: “I would obtain mercy of thee for Bait Lahm”. Said Umar; “I know naught of the place but would like to see it.” When Umar came, he said to the people, “Ye shall have mercy and safe conduct, but it is incumbent upon us that every place where there are Christians, we should erect a mosque.” The monk answered: “There is in Bait Lahm an arched building (Haniyyah) which is built to be turned towards your Qiblah, take this and make it a mosque for the Muslims and do not destroy the church.” Umar spared the church, saying his prayer in that arched building and made it a mosque, laying on the Christians the service of lighting it with lamps and keeping it clean and its repair. There is another version of the covenant said to have been reached after a conversation between Umar Abu Ubayda (chief commander in Syria) and Constantine, the eldest son of Heraclius. These are the terms imposed on the Christians. The rich are to pay forty-eight dirhams, the middle class twenty-four, and the poor twelve. They are not to build churches, not to lift a cross in the presence of Muslims, and to only beat the nakus (bells) inside the churches. They are to share their houses so that the Muslims may dwell in them; otherwise, I (UMAR) shall not be easy about you. They are to give part of the churches towards Makkah, has mosques for the Muslims, for they are in the middle of the towns. They are not to drive pigs into the presence of Muslims. They are to entertain them as guests three days and nights. They are to provide mounts, for those on foot, from village to village. They are to help them and not betray them. They are not to make agreements with their enemies. He who breaks these conditions may be slain and his women and children made slaves. (AS Tritton, page 11). As they did with all other cities they conquered, the Muslims had to write up a treaty detailing the rights and privileges of the conquered people and the Muslims in Jerusalem. This treaty was signed by Umar and Patriarch Sophronius, along with some of the generals of the Muslim armies. At the time, this was by far one of the most progressive treaties in history. For comparison, just 23 years earlier when Jerusalem was conquered by the Persians from the Byzantines, a general massacre was ordered. Another massacre ensued when Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders by the Muslims in 1099. When Umar surveyed Jerusalem from the Jewish temple site after conquering the city in AD638, it was a defining moment in the emergence of the militant faith. Over the decades that followed, the Muslim victory was consolidated by the construction of the temple mount of the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock (the supposed site of Mohammed's ascent to heaven after his miraculous 'Night Journey' from Mecca). The Islamic conquerors had every reason to believe history was on their side, while the arrival of the upstart religion shattered the Christian empires of Europe and Byzantium. Within 100 years the Muslim conquests had created an empire that stretched through Spain and into the heart of France. Jerusalem is a city holy to the three largest monotheistic faiths – Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Because of its history that spans thousands of years, it goes by many names: Jerusalem, al-Quds, Yerushaláyim, Aelia, and more, all reflecting its diverse heritage. It is a city that numerous Muslim prophets called home, from Sulayman and Dawood to Isa (Jesus). The first epoch of 450 years began in 638 when Caliph Umar accepted the surrender of Jerusalem and was surprised when informed that there were no Jews in the city. Over the previous century, the Byzantine emperors, in collusion with the local Christians, had forced the Jews to convert. Those who did not were expelled from Jerusalem and banned from praying at the sacred Temple Wall. Jews often came secretly to the neighboring hills overlooking the sacred site to pray and gaze at the Temple wall. To rectify this injustice, Hazrat Umar encouraged 70 Jewish families to resettle in their ancestral homes and cleared a space for them around the Temple Wall. He then personally wrote a document clearly defining the rights of the minorities (dhimmis) in conquered lands. This edict, called Ehed Umaria is today enshrined in the Mosque of Umar in the Christian Quarter of Jerusalem. To commemorate the magnanimity of the Caliph, a large area in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem is named Umar Ibn Khattab Square. By 637, Muslim armies began to make raids into Jerusalem. Jerusalem was under Patriarch Sophronius, a representative of the Byzantine government, as well as a leader in the Christian church. Although numerous Muslim armies under the command of Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-‘As began to surround the city, Sophronius refused to surrender unless Umar came to accept the surrender himself. Having heard of such a condition, Umar left Madinah, traveling alone with one donkey and one servant. The Muslim generals had been advised to meet the Caliph at Jabia. So, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, Khalid ibn Walid and others came and received him at this place. Long residence in Syria had robbed these officers of their Arabian simplicity. When they arrived in Umar's presence, he saw them in silk from the richest looms and their brilliant dresses and flamboyant appearances gave them the look of the Persians. Umar flew into a fit of rage at the sight. He jumped off his horse and, picking up a few pebbles that lay scattered about the ground, he pelted them saying: “So soon have you fallen into Persian habits.” The officers replied that they had cuirasses beneath the silken tunics, implying that they had not lost the art of war and that their warlike spirit was as keen as ever. On hearing this, the Caliph relented and agreed that if such was the case then there was no real harm done. Approaching close to the city, Umar got up on a hillock and looked all around. The charming fields of Ghota with their verdure-laden expense stretched and the stately and towering edifices of Damascus loomed in front of him. He was strangely moved and in a tone of deep pathos repeated the following verse from the Qur’an: “They have left many a garden, fountain, park, arbour and riches which they used to enjoy. Thus, it is that We put another community in possession thereof.” Umar sojourned for a long while at Jabia and the treaty of Jerusalem was drawn up there. The Christians of Jerusalem had already been informed of the journey of Umar and some of the nobles of that city proceeded to Damascus to see him. Umar was seated amid the Muslim troops when suddenly a cloud of dust arose in the distance and several horsemen appeared at full gallop with swords glittering at their sides. The Muslims, startled at the appearance, instinctively felt for their weapons. When Umar enquired the cause of the alarm, they pointed towards the dashing cavalry. Quickly, Umar guessed that the approaching horsemen were the Christians of Jerusalem and he accordingly reassured his men, saying they need not be alarmed as the strangers only came to sue for peace. The treaty of peace was drawn up, and the Companions' elite subscribed to it. This is Tabari’s statement. Balazuri and Azdi on the other hand say that the treaty of peace was drawn up at Jerusalem. After the ratification of the treaty, Umar proceeded to Jerusalem. The hoofs of the horse which he rode were worn to tenderness and the animal limped painfully. Umar dismounted on seeing its sorry condition. His men brought him a fine courser of Turkish breed. The horse was very aggressive and galloped violently. As Umar mounted it, it began to prance at which he cried out: “Miserable thing I whence this vain and haughty amble?” Thus, saying he alighted and pursued his way on foot. As he entered Jerusalem, Abu Ubaida and other officers of the army came forth to bid him welcome. The scantiness of Umar’s shabby attire and the tattered condition of his scrubby equipage put the Muslims to shame and their sense of self-respect received a shock when the galling idea crossed their minds as to what the Christians would think of them on beholding their chief. So, they brought for his use a gallant Turkish charger and a handsome dress of valuable materials. Umar, however, rejected the offer saying that the honour which God had conferred upon him was that of Islam and that that was enough for him. In short, he entered Jerusalem in the same humble guise. Sophronius, dressed in the gilded raiment of his office, came out to meet Umar, expecting to find a royally armoured conqueror. He was surprised to meet a simply dressed man leading a camel mounted by Umar’s manservant. The two had travelled together from the north, taking turns riding the camel. The humbly attired commander of the Muslim army promised Sophronius that the people, property, and holy sites of the city of Jerusalem would be spared. Moved by his pledge, the bishop handed Umar the keys to the city gates and the Holy Sepulcher. First of all, he bowed before the mosque and then while approaching the arch of David, he recited the verse from the Qur’an which speaks of the Apostle David as bowing down to God and then prostrated himself in humble obeisance. He then visited the church of the Christians and walked about the building for some time. Sophronius ushered Umar to the Holy Sepulcher, the holiest church in Christendom and a repository of divine history. Adam, the first man, was buried there. This was the place of Christ’s empty tomb, and it was there that Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, had discovered the true cross and the crown of thorns. For centuries, legends of the salutary effects of a visit to such sites, just a touch of the sacred stone of the tomb were said to cure deadly diseases, had been luring pilgrims throughout the world. When the time for prayer came, Sophronius invited Umar to pray inside the church, but Umar refused. He insisted that if he prayed there, later Muslims would use it as an excuse to convert it into a mosque – thereby depriving Christendom of one of its holiest sites. Instead, Umar prayed outside the church, where a mosque (called Masjid Umar – the Mosque of Umar) was later built. Umar then asked the bishop about the site of the Holy Rock and Solomon’s Temple. The bishop didn’t know exactly where the temple was, as the plateau where it had once stood was now a vast garbage heap. There were piles of bones and human dung, animal skins, and, most shocking of all, Muslim and Jews, pig carcasses. Out from the nearby crowds, says Muslim legend, a Jew stepped forward. It was he who now offered to help Umar locate the site of the temple and the rock. And so the two burrowed their way through the rubbish until they came to the spot. “It is here,” the Jew said to Umar. “This is the place you seek.” Umar began digging with his own hands. Once he had cleaned away the debris and wiped the Holy Rock clean with his robe, he performed a prayer. Umar immediately set about making the city an important Muslim landmark. Umar and his army (along with some Jews) personally cleaned it and built a mosque – Masjid al-Aqsa, there. Throughout the remainder of Umar’s caliphate and into the Umayyad Empire’s reign over the city, Jerusalem became a major centre of religious pilgrimage and trade. The Dome of the Rock was added to complement Masjid al-Aqsa in 691. Numerous other mosques and public institutions were soon established throughout the city. The Muslim conquest of Jerusalem under the Caliph Umar in 637 was an important moment in the city’s history. For the next 462 years, it would be ruled by Muslims, with religious freedom for minorities protected according to the Treaty of Umar. As many military officers and provincial Governors had gathered there, Umar prolonged his sojourn in the holy city for many days and issued various necessary orders. One day Bilal, the Prophet’s muezzin, complained to the Commander of the Faithful that the officers treated themselves to such dainties as fowl’s meat and white loaves, while the men could not get even ordinary food - Umar glanced inquisitively at the officers who replied that edibles of all varieties were cheap in that country and those white loaves and fowls’ meat cost the same there as brown loaves and dates in Hijaz. Umar could not compel the officers to partake of a more frugal fare but he issued an order to the effect that in addition to their pay and fair share of the war spoils, the soldiers should also get free rations. One day, at the time of prayers, Umar requested Bilal to say the adhan. Bilal said that he had made up his mind never to say the adhan for anyone after the Prophet, but that he would make an exception in his favour and obey him for that only once. So, when his well-known stentorian accents began to summon the faithful to prayers, Bilal's resonant and sonorous cadences, painfully reminded the Companions of the blessed times of the Prophet and melted their hearts to tears. Abu Ubayda and Muaz ibn Jabal wept most disconsolately while Umar fell into a fit of uncontrollable sobs. It was some time before this scene of deep emotion and pathos turned normal. During his stay at Jerusalem, Umar once visited the Mosque of Aqsa and sent for Kaab the Bishop asked him where to say the prayers. There lies a stone in this fane that the ancient Prophets have left as a relic. It is called Sakhrah and the Jews hold it in the same veneration as the Muslims do the Hajar Aswad (the Black Stone). When Umar enquired from Kaab the direction in which the prayers were to be offered, the latter pointed out Sakhrah as the Qiblah. On this Umar told him that the Jewish faith had still a holdover his mind which had led him, instinctively, as it were, to put off his shoes near Sakhrah. This event shows in what light Umar regarded such ancient monuments. To support the above description of the religious tolerance of Umar, let me quote Sir William Muir, a nineteenth-century British historian of early Muslim history: Mahometan (Muslim) tradition gives no further detail respecting this memorable visit (to Jerusalem). But Christian writers say that Umar accompanied the Patriarch over the city, visited the various places of pilgrimage, and graciously inquired into their history. At the appointed hour, the Patriarch bade the Caliph perform his orisons in the church of the Resurrection, where they chanced to be. But he declined to pray either there or in the church of Constantine where a carpet had been spread for him, saying kindly that if he did so his followers would take possession of the church forever, as a place where Moslem prayer had once been offered up. Umar also visited Bethlehem; and having prayed in the church of the Nativity, left a rescript with the Patriarch, who accompanied him on the pious errand, securing the Christians in possession of the building, with the condition that not more than one Mussulman (Muslim) should ever enter at a time. It was under Umar’s leadership that Islam made its largest and fastest expansion. During his reign, Muslim forces conquered Syria, Jerusalem, Egypt, Libya, Iraq and Persia. One ingenious means of ensuring the continued expansion of Islam was Umar’s decision to forbid Arabs from owning any land. Thus, excluded from acquiring wealth, they were motivated to focus on further conquests single-mindedly. The Visit To Jerusalem The anecdote about Umar’s entry into Jerusalem has remained as an immortal example of his total adherence to Islam’s principle of equity. Because he had only one attendant with him and only one camel to ride, they rode the camel by turns. It happened to be the servant’s turn to ride on the day when they were to reach Jerusalem. The people who had seen the pomp of great kings were stunned to see the Caliph of Islam walking while his attendant sat on the camel’s back! Fully realizing his responsibility to his charge, Umar personally visited Iraq, Syria and Egypt when in the year 17 A.H., a great plague swept through those countries killing thousands of people. Reminded by one Companion about the divine admonition against knowingly putting one’s life at risk, he answered that he was following another Divine Command. Another memorable anecdote associated with Umar is about his letter. The Coptics were Christians, but they followed a savage practice of giving a human sacrifice once a year amidst a big festival in the summer. A beautiful maiden, dressed as a bride, was thrown into the Nile. People felt that the sacrifice was necessary to please the Nile, and get a big flood of water for their parched fields. If the Nile got displeased, they thought, there would be no flood and hence no crops. The Coptics asked the Muslim Governor’s permission to sacrifice a maiden as usual. He disallowed the savage act. It so happened that the Nile had very little water that year. Crops failed. Many of the peasants decided to leave the country. Amr bin ‘Aas, the Governor informed Umar, at which point the Caliph sent a letter, addressed to the Nile. It said: “From the servant of Allah and Commander of the Muslims to the River of the Nile of Egypt. O Nile, if you flow of your own will, then do not flow. But if Allah, the Almighty, controls your flow, we pray to Him to keep you flowing.” This letter was thrown into the river, as directed by the Caliph. The river overflowed its banks that year. Such a big flood had not been seen for years. The country was once again green with crops. The peasants were happy. The savage practice of human sacrifice came to an end forever. The examples of how Umar practiced Islam in letter and spirit as an individual and as the Commander of the Faithful are too many to be compressed in a narrow space. From the Hijra onward, Hazrat Umar was actively involved in every significant development in the formative period of Islam until the revelation of the Quran ended and the religion in its great essentials was complete. No battle was fought, no treaty negotiated, and no administrative measure put in place, without Umar being consulted and his advice influencing the outcome. Umar attained excellence in several fields - in government and administration, in statesmanship and political craft, in the management of armies and conquests, in Quranic scholarship and exegesis, in the Law and the principles of its information, and devotion and servant-hood to God. It is difficult to measure, and therefore to state succinctly, the scale of Umar’s achievements. The New Conquests Umar promised not to send the Muslim armies “into destruction”, meaning that he would not send the armies out unless the risks were evaluated and were considered worthy of initiating action. He promised not to keep the soldiers away from their families for an extended period and reassured the men that while they were away fighting for the Muslim ummah, and if they did not return, he, the Caliph, would be the father of their children and the caretaker of their wives. Umar believed the role of the leader was to protect the people. Although he was the leader of a great empire, Umar never felt it necessary to have a bodyguard. He walked the streets of Madinah like any ordinary citizen, even at night. It was during the nights that he moved around the streets incognito checking up on those under his protection and anonymously distributing charity. Umar extended Islam’s temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what were from a purely military standpoint, astonishing victories. Within four years after the death of the Prophet, the Muslim state had extended its sway over all of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River Yarmuk, blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler Heraclius had recently rejected the letter from the unknown Prophet of Arabia. Vanquishing the Persians The Romans and Persians who always looked down upon the Arabs as an uncultured race viewed with alarm the rising power of Islam and were anxious to subjugate and crush it. The Persians sent reinforcement to the rebels of Bahrain against Islam. They instigated Sajab, who pretended to be a Prophetess in Iraq, and marched upon Madinah. Rustam, the famous Persian General, had sworn that he would destroy the entire Arab race. Such designs and machinations of the Persians warned the Muslims of the dangers, but being a spirited people, they accepted the challenge. Hence the war was forced upon the unwilling Muslims and they could not ignore this threat to their very existence. The first defeat of the Persians came as a great surprise to them as they expected little resistance from the Arabs. They were already alarmed at their unexpected defeats during the time of Abu Bakr. Every disaster on the battlefield only added to the flames of Persian fury. Theirs was a vast empire, and so were their resources. They deployed their forces and material recklessly to stem the advance of the Arabs and crush their striking power forever. A handful of ill-equipped Arabs were arrayed against the formidable forces of Romans and Persians. One can hardly find in recorded history an instance where, despite such disparities between the opposing forces, the weaker one triumphed over two powerful opponents. It was reminiscent of the Battle of Badr. The tempo of war increased when Umar was elected as Caliph. Muslims were fighting on two fronts - in Syria, they were engaged with the powerful forces of the mighty Roman Empire and in Iraq, they were arrayed against the formidable forces of Khosroe (Persians). Puran Dikht, who ascended the Persian throne, had appointed Rustam as the army's Commander-in-Chief. All these initiatives could not check the Muslim advance and the Persians under the command of Narsi were routed at Kasker. Rustam appointed Bahman, a sworn enemy of Arabs, as the Commander of Persian forces in Iraq. A bloody battle was fought at Beirut in 635A.D.in which the Persians beat a hasty retreat, leaving behind many dead bodies. Muthanna, the Muslim General, declared that he had taken part in several engagements against the Persians in pre-Islamic days. Previously 100 Persians could overpower 1000 Arabs, but the tables had been turned. The battle of Qadisiyah, fought in 635 A.D. under the command of Sa’d Abi Waqas, was decisive since it sealed the fate of the Persian Empire in Iraq. Rustam, the greatest war hero of Persia, had mustered a strong force against the Muslims. The ill Muslim commander had appointed Khalid Bin Artafa in his place and guided his movements through written instructions. A poet named Abu Mahjan Saqfi, who was in chains for his drunkenness, implored the commander’s wife Salma to release him for a short while so that he could take part in the battle. He promised to return when the battle was over. His request was granted forthwith and Abu Mahjan, with a sword in his hand, literally ran amok and fought bitterly to the end. He put himself in chains again when the battle was over, but Sa’d released him on knowing of his exploits. Rustam, who tried to escape, was killed. Umar was very anxious about the result of this battle. He had masterminded military operations in Iraq and for hours he would wait daily outside Madinah in hope of good news. Umar made a memorable speech before the Madinites. Brothers of Islam! I am not your ruler who wants to enslave you. I am a servant of God and His people. I have been entrusted with the heavy responsibility of running the caliphate administration. It is my duty to make you comfortable in every way and it will be an evil day for me if I wish you to wait on me now and then. I want to educate you not through my precepts but by my practice. The Persians made their last stand in Iraq in front of Madinah, the capital. They destroyed the bridge built on the Tigris. Such obstacles could not check the advance of Mulsims. Sa’d, the commander of the faithful, plunged his horse into the river. The rest of the army followed suit and they crossed the river in a moment without disrupting their formations. The Persians were terrified at this unusual sight and cried out! “Demons have come”. Saying this, they took to flight in utter confusion. A vast treasure fell into the hands of the Muslim conquerors, including the invaluable Persian carpet. This treasure was brought to Madinah and heaped in the courtyard of the Mosque of the Prophet. The great Caliph burst into tears on its sight. The audience asked him the reason for his unusual expression of grief. The Caliph replied promptly, “This wealth was the cause of the downfall of Persians and now it has come to us to bring our downfall.” He ordered that the wealth be distributed among people immediately. Even that priceless carpet was not spared; with Ali's advice, it was torn to pieces and distributed among the people. Umar commended the high character of his soldiers who did not touch a single souvenir out of this colossal booty. Encountering the Syrians Syria was another theatre of war, where the Muslims were arrayed against the formidable Roman forces. Abu Bakr, during his lifetime, summoned Khalid Bin Walid, the Sword of God, to assist the Muslims in Syria. The Syrian cities, one after another, capitulated to the Muslims. Hems, Hama (Epiphania), Kinnisrin (Chalcis), Aleppo and other important towns surrendered and opened their gates to the forces of Islam. The city of Damascus which was held by a large garrison, offered considerable resistance. One night Khalid bin Walid, stationed on the other side of the city, scaled its walls and opened the gate. The Muslim army entered the city from one side. Immediately the Romans offered themselves for peace to the commander-in-chief Abu Ubaidah, who was stationed on the other side of the city. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah who came from opposite directions, met in the centre of the city. Abu Ubaidah asked the Muslims not to plunder anyone as he had accepted the peace terms. Antioch, the capital of the Roman East, also fell to the Muslims after stubborn resistance. The Roman Governor named Artabin, had mustered a strong force for the defence of his province. Placing small bodies of troops at Jerusalem, Gaza and Ramleh, he had assembled a large army in Ajnadian. The Muslims, who were deeply concerned about these movements of the Roman forces, withdrew their garrisons from various sectors and advanced to face Artabin. While withdrawing from Hems, Abu Ubaidah, Commander-in-chief of the Muslim forces, asked his Treasury Officer to return the jizyah (Protection Tax) to the inhabitants, as they could not undertake the responsibility of the protection of their non-Muslim subjects there. The order was immediately carried out and the whole amount was refunded to the local inhabitants. The Christian population was so much touched by this unusual generosity of the conquerors that they wept bitterly and cried out “May God bring you here again.” The Jews swore in Torah that they would resist the Romans to the last man if they ever ventured to capture the city. A bloody battle ensued in the plain of Yarmuk in 634A.D. between the forces of Islam and the Romans. The Romans had mustered a strong army of 3 lac soldiers, while the Muslim army comprised 30 thousand unskilled and ill-equipped soldiers only. The Muslims fought like demons and routed the Romans after a fierce conflict. More than a hundred thousand Romans perished on the battlefield while Muslim casualties hardly exceeded three thousand. When apprised of this crushing defeat, Caesar cried out sorrowfully “Goodbye Syria” and he retired to Constantinople. The few Roman soldiers who escaped from Yarmuk found a refuge within the walls of the fortified city of Jerusalem. This city was garrisoned by a heavy force and resisted for a considerable time. At last, the Patriarch sued for peace but refused to surrender to anyone except the Caliph himself. Umar acceded to his request and, traveling with a single attendant without escort, pomp, and pageantry, arrived at Jabia. When he arrived in the presence of the Patriarch and his men, he was leading the camel while the attendant was riding it. The Christian priests and their associates were profoundly struck with this strange respect for equality of man exhibited by the Caliph of Islam. The patriarch presented the keys of the sacred city to the Caliph and entered the city together. Umar refused to offer his prayers in the church of Resurrection saying, “If I do so, the Muslims in future might infringe the treaty, under the pretext of imitating my example.” Just terms were offered to the Christians while the Samuritan Jews, who had assisted the Muslims, were granted their properties without payment of any tax. The subjugation of Syria was now complete. Syria bowed under the sceptre of the Caliphs, seven hundred years after Pompey had deposed the last of the Macedonian kings. After their last defeat, the Romans recognised themselves hopelessly beaten, though they continued to raid the Muslim territories. To erect an impassable barrier between themselves and the Muslims they converted into a veritable desert a vast tract on the frontiers of their remaining Asiatic possessions. All cities in this doomed track were razed to the ground, fortresses were dismantled, and the population was carried away further north. Thus, what has been deemed to be the work of Arab Muslim hordes was the outcome of Byzantine barbarism”. This short-sighted policy was of no avail and could not stem the tide of Muslim advance. Iyaz, the Muslim commander, passing through Tauras, reduced the province of Cilicia, captured it is capital Tarsus and reached as far as the shores of the Black Sea. His name became a terror to Romans in Asia Minor. After clearing Syria of the Roman forces, the Muslim army marched on Persia and conquered Azerbaijan in 643A.D., Bostan in 643 A.D., Armenia in 644 A.D., Sistan in 644 A.D. and Mekran in 644 A.D. According to the celebrated historian Billazori, the Islamic forces had reached as far as the plain of Debul in Sind. But Tabari says that the Caliph prevented his army from making further advances east of Mekran. The defeated Roman forces had taken refuge in Alexandria and threatened the Muslim-conquered Syria. Hence Umar bin Aas implored the Caliph to allow him to advance on Egypt. The request was granted, and Muslim forces under Umar bin Aas captured Alexandria in 641-642 A.D. The Egyptian Christians, called Copts, were treated humanely by the Muslim conquerors and were granted landed properties. The Arabs also constructed a strong fleet to meet the challenge of Romans as masters of the seas. Thus, the naval supremacy of Arabs was also established and the Roman fleet fled before them to the Hellespont. The Muslims captured several islands of the Greek Archipelago. Yazdgard tried to slow the advance of Arab troops by destroying the bridge linking the Tigris River's western shores to Madayen. These tactics, however, proved futile. The Arabs put their horses into the river, waded across to the other shore and Madayen fell in 637 A.D. The treasures of the Persian capital were now in Muslim hands. Untold amounts of gold, silver, jewels, carpets and artifacts were captured and transported to Madinah. Included in the war booty was an elephant that aroused a great deal of curiosity among the ladies in Madinah. Yazdgard fled Madayen towards Merv, in north-eastern Persia. Realizing that the war with the Muslims was not just a skirmish but a full-scale invasion, he called on all Persians and their allies to defend Persia. A huge army of 150,000 was assembled and put under the command of Mardan Shah who had already seen action against the Arabs at the Battle of the Euphrates. To inspire the Persians, Mardan Shah was vested with the durafsh, the national emblem of Persia. The governor of Kufa, Ammar ibn Yassir sent this information to the Caliph and asked for additional troops. Umar sent a corps of 30,000 under the command of Numan ibn Muquran. Peace talks proved futile, and the two armies met at the Battle of Nahawand. In the initial engagements, Numan ibn Muquran was seriously wounded, but the Muslim commanders kept this fact secret. Towards the end of the first day, the enemy lines broke, and the Muslims were victorious. Numan did not survive his wounds and died that evening. Persian resistance continued from its eastern provinces. Yazdgard set himself up in Merv and took personal command of his forces. Realizing that an injured enemy was a dangerous enemy, Umar resolved to put an end to all Persian resistance. From Nahawand, the Arab armies split up and mounted a multi-pronged drive against Persian strongholds. Abi al Aas captured Persepolis. Aasim ibn Amr took Sistan. Hakam ibn Umair conquered Makran and Baluchistan. Azerbaijan fell to Othba ibn Farqad. Buqair ibn Abdulla subdued Armenia. A contingent under Ahnaf ibn Qais marched on Khorasan. By the year 650 A.D., the Persian Empire was entirely under the control of Arab armies. Yazdgard fled Persia and died in exile. Within a decade after the election of Umar ibn al Khattab as the Caliph, the map of West Asia and North Africa had been reconfigured. Madinah was now the capital of the largest empire in the world, extending from Tripoli in North Africa to Samarqand in Central Asia. This empire was ruled not by a king or a general but by a revolutionary creed: “There is no deity, but God and Muhammad are His Messenger.” The Caliph was no more than a servant of God and the keeper of Divine Laws. When Caliph Umar was informed of the victories over Persia, he went to the mosque in Madinah and addressed the people: “O, believers! The Persians have lost their kingdom. They cannot harm us anymore. God has made you inherit their country, properties, and riches so that He may test you. Therefore, you should not change your ways. Otherwise, God will bring forth another nation in place of you. I feel anxiety for our community from our people.” Freedom Of Religion in Egypt Whereas the orthodox church of Byzantine had persecuted the Christians of Syria and Egypt as heretics, Muslims treated the Copt community in Egypt with respect and dignity. It is noteworthy that Coptic Patriarch Benjamin, a fugitive in the desert for the last 12 years, was summoned by Muslim Governor (Amil) Amr ibn al-Asi, from his hiding to resume the leadership of the Coptic church. The victorious Muslim commander said to him: “Resume the government of all your churches and your people, and administer their affairs. And if you will pray for me, that I may go to the West and Pentapolis, and take possession of them, as I have of Egypt and return to you in safety and speedily, I will do for you all that you shall ask of me.” Then the holy Benjamin prayed for Amr, and pronounced an eloquent discourse, which made Amr and those present with him marvel and contained words of exhortation and much profit for those who heard him. He revealed certain matters to Amr, and departed from his presence honoured and revered. A Benign and Strategist Conqueror A handful of ill-equipped and unskilled Muslims had overthrown two of the mightiest Empires in the world. The Prophet had infused a revolutionary spirit in the adherents (supporters) of the new faith, who demonstrated enormous courage and tremendous confidence in the new religion. The wise policy followed by Umar in the selection of his generals and the liberal terms offered to the conquered races were instrumental in the speed of victories registered by Muslims. Umar was a great military strategist; he issued detailed instructions regarding the conduct of operations. A study of the history of Tabari would reveal that Umar-the-great, sitting thousands of miles away, guided his armies on the battlefronts and controlled their movements. Umar’s generosity helped win the hearts of the conquered people, which ultimately paved the way for the conquered territories' consolidation and efficient administration. He had strictly forbidden his soldiers not to kill the weak and damage the shrines and places of worship. A treaty, once concluded, would be observed in letter and spirit. Contrary to the repression and ferocity of great conquerors like Alexander, Caesar, Tamerlane, Changiz Khan and Halaqu, Umar’s conquests were both physical and spiritual. When Alexander conquered Sur, a city in Syria, he ordered a general massacre and hanged one thousand respectable citizens on the city walls. Similarly, when he conquered Astakher, a town in Persia, he beheaded its entire male population. Tyrants like Changiz, Tamerlane and Halaqu were even more ferocious. Hence, their vast Empire was crushed to pieces after their death. But the conquest of the second Caliph of Islam was different. The humane approach to efficient administration added to the consolidation of his Empire in such a way that even today, after 1400 years, the countries he conquered are still in Muslim hands. ----- Moin Qazi is the author of the bestselling book, Village Diary of a Heretic Banker. He has worked in the development finance sector for almost four decades. Other Parts of the Article: Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part One: Timeline Of The Life Of Caliph Umar Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Two: Glimpses Of The Biography That Shaped His Destiny As Well As That Of Islam Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Three: A Paragon Of Nobility Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Four: A Pioneering Reformer URL: https://newageislam.com/books-documents/umar-farooq-caliph-part-five-conqueror-/d/130471 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism