Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Four: A Pioneering Reformer

By Moin Qazi, New Age Islam 6 January 2023 Amongst the nations before your time, there have been inspired people(who were not Prophets), and if there is one amongst my Ummah, he is Umar - Prophet Muhammad A Pioneering Reformer Umar was one of Muhammad’s earliest and staunchest supporters and had quickly developed an administrative system of manifestly superior effectiveness. He defined the ummah as a continually expansive polity managed by a new ruling elite, which included successful military commanders like Khālid ibn al-Walīd. Even after the conquests ended, this sense of expansiveness continued to be expressed in the way Muslims divided the world into their zone, the Dār al-Islām, and the zone into which they could and should expand, the Dār al-Ḥarb, the abode of war. Islam supplied the norms of Umar’s new elite as it was then understood. Umar was a great reformer and a path-builder. The message we must take from his life and work is that if we have to move from one century to another successfully, we must be able to meet the manifold challenges that await us creatively. Islam is a living faith, a dynamic religion with firm principles and sufficient flexibility to adapt to all times and conditions. We must continuously reinterpret and rethink the tradition of Islam in terms of contemporary challenges. Transparency In Administration The success of Umar’s administration was mainly because of his strict vigilance of the officials. When a Governor was appointed, his appointment letter detailed his duties and privileges. This letter was publicly readout so that people could know the terms of the appointment and could hold him accountable for any abuse of power. Addressing a group of Governors, he once said, “Remember, I have not appointed you to rule over your people, but to serve them. You should set an example with your good conduct, so that people may follow you.” Umar took particular care to emphasize that there should not be much distinction between the ruler and the ruled, and the people should have easy and free access to the highest authority of the state. He insisted that Governors live simple lives, keep no guard at their doors and be accessible to the people at all times. Umar himself set the example for them. Whenever he appointed a Governor, he used to draw up in writing a certificate of investiture, which he would get witnessed by some of the emigrants or helpers. It contained the following directions: “He must not ride on horseback, eat white bread, nor wear fine clothes, nor set up a door between himself and those who ought to ask of him.” He kept strict vigil over the assets of Governors used to record the possessions at the time of their appointment, and whatever was later acquired by them was partly or wholly confiscated. Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, the author of the Kitab Futuh al-Buldan (“Book of the Conquests of the Lands”), an inventory of movable and immovable assets of the important officials was prepared at the time of his appointment, which was updated from time to time. Any unusual increase in assets had to be properly accounted and explained for. All the high officials had to report to the Caliph every year at the time of hajj and according to Abu Yusuf, the author of Kitabul Khiraj, a treatise on taxation and fiscal problems of the state, any dissatisfied individual could complain to the errant official irrespective of his rank. The complaints had to be disposed of in a fixed timeframe. Even the highest officials of the state were not spared if the complaints were found to be genuine. Once a person complained that a certain Governor had flogged him for no fault of his. The matter was enquired into, and the Governor was publicly flogged with the same number of stripes for his errancy. Muhammad bin Muslamah Ansari, a person of unquestionable integrity, was appointed as the roving investigator, who visited different countries and enquired into public complaints. Once a complaint was lodged with the Caliph that Sa’d bin Waqas, Governor of Kufa, had constructed a palace there. Umar at once despatched Muhammad Ansari, who pulled down a portion of the palace that hindered the easy entry of the public. On another complaint, Sa’d was deposed from his post. The Caliph received a report that Ayaz bin Ganam, the Amil (Governor) of Egypt, had kept a gatekeeper for his house. Muhammad Ansari who was immediately sent to Egypt, found the report to be correct and brought the Governor to Madinah. The Caliph humiliated him publicly. Amr ibn al-Asi had his possessions confiscated by the Caliph when he was Governor of Egypt. Similarly, the Caliph seized 12000 dirhams from Abu Hurairah, who was once Governor of al-Bahrain. At times, a commission was appointed by the Caliph to enquire into various charges. Such strict measures adopted by Umar ensured an efficient and transparent administration in his vast state. Even the officials working thousands of miles away from Madinah could not dare to do anything against the interests of the people and the state. None could ever contemplate incurring the displeasure of the iron Caliph. Innovations In Agriculture Water scarcity converted the barren Arabian Peninsula into a vast desert that has never yielded substantial agricultural produce. Her scattered population always had to fall back on a foreign supply of foodgrains to supplement the dates and the little corn grown in their lands. Agriculture in Arabia, which has had the distinction of being the cradle of the world's great prophets, has been very primitive and was confined to those tracts where water was available in the form of springs. Taif, a hilly place, is known as the garden of Hejaz, where, besides grapes, apples, figs, pomegranates, and dates, wheat is also cultivated. With its springs and wells, Madina is a green spot in a vast desert, and dates, wheat and barley are grown there. The great Prophet of Islam had left behind him a group of selfless people whose sagacity and magnanimity, faith and unity, the spirit of sacrifice and service won for them laurels not only on the battle-fields but in almost all branches of human activity. Agriculture was no exception, and as early as during the reign of the second Caliph of Islam, Arabs had made considerable progress in agriculture and had introduced many beneficial measures for its advancement in their dominions including Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Hejaz. During the reign of the second Caliph, the Arab conquest was extended over Asia and Africa. Arabs were confronted with new problems which the administration of such a vast empire had brought in its wake. The Arabs adapted native techniques used for handling such issues in their dominions. Umar had fixed the land revenue rates according to the land type. He charged four dirhams on one jarib of sown wheat, while he charged 2 dirhams for a similar plot of barley. Nothing was set for pastures and uncultivated land. In this way, he systematized revenues that, before his time, were charged haphazardly. Different rules were framed regarding the revenues of Egypt, whose agricultural output depended on the floods of the river Nile. According to reliable historical sources, the annual revenues of Iraq amounted to 860 million dirhams, an amount which was never exceeded after the death of the great Caliph. However, he was very lenient in levying them. The main reason behind the easy realisation of revenue was that the people had become prosperous. He introduced many far-reaching reforms. One of these was the abolition of landlords or zamindari and the subsequent disappearance of the evils being wrought on the poor tenants by the vested landed interests. When the Romans conquered Syria and Egypt, they confiscated the land from the soil tillers and allotted it to the nobles, churches and members of the royal family, and the armed forces. In general, Umar’s solution was to leave the conquered peoples in possession of their lands and their religion in exchange for the payment of tribute which was to be disbursed by the Muslim government to its armies and citizens. To institutionalize this policy, a divan, or register, was drawn up, which regularized the stipends that Muslims were to be paid according to religious and tribal principles. Relations between Muslims and non-Muslims were further stabilized by exempting the latter from military service and guaranteeing them protection in return for the taxes they paid. After the conquest of these countries, Umar returned the land to those local inhabitants who were the rightful owners. The just and benevolent Caliph was exceptionally generous to the tillers of the soil and he even issued strict orders that non-natives and Arab soldiers who had intruded into these countries should be granted land for cultivation purposes. Such steps by the second caliph of Islam restored confidence among the local inhabitants, gave a great impetus to the advancement of agriculture in those countries, and contributed to the enormous increase in agricultural production. The tenants became prosperous and their standard of living was raised, which led to the easy realization of land revenues by the custodians of the State. It was those generous and liberal tax policies of the second Caliph that the Christian Qibtis of Egypt, who were farmers, always sided with Muslim Arabs in preference to Roman Christians. He designed schemes for the advancement of agriculture and constructed irrigation canals, wells and tanks in his vast dominions. He established a public welfare department that monitored and expanded these works. The famous historian Allama Maqrizi says that more than one lac and twenty thousand labourers were employed in such works throughout the year in Egypt alone. Several canals were constructed in Khuzistan and Ahwaz during this period. Sound Governance To meet the necessity of the public and to govern well, Umar also introduced the following reformation: · Institution of hisbah. This is an institution to maintain law and order in the marketplace. It is headed by an officer known as muhtasib. · A particular office for investigating complaints that reach the Caliph. A very reliable and trustworthy person is appointed for the post. · A bait al-mal or Treasury House. Umar separated the judicial and executive duties to specialize in the management of both effectively. Special judges (Qadi) were appointed to perform the function of the judiciary who were distinct and separate from the role of the Governor of the province and territories, and Qadi’s were placed under the supervision of the Caliph Separation of power can give the judicial benefit management and enable the administration of the court to run efficiently. The ideological system suggested by Umar was among the best, with the separation of power encouraging leaders and the people to use power and authority correctly. Further, strategic planning in economic systems was also introduced, providing the most benefit to the people and state and, in due respect, to his responsibility and accountability to Allah. Caliph Umar inspired the best economic systems. He introduced a variety of revenue systems for countries, which formed the foundation of the land tenure system. The different systems of land tenure that were prevalent in the Muslim Empire during the caliphate of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab were: · Iqta or Individual ownership system. The grant of iqtas conferred proprietary rights on the beneficiaries such that an Iqta became Iqta Tamlik, where the owners were, free to use the land in any way they liked. · Hima or collective land-ownership system. Hima was a vital institution prevalent at the time of Umar. It means that the land is owned by one or more tribes. · Crown lands and state landlordism. With the conquest of different countries, state landlordism also flourished. Under this system, land belonged to the state and cultivators were the tenants of the state. The tenant did not enjoy proprietary rights and the land could not be transferred or sold by the occupants. · Private landlordism. This was first practiced by the Prophet who agreed with the Jews and Khaybar. · Peasant-proprietorship. In this system, the owner tilled the land. This system was common in Arabia, especially in those parts that were arable and fertile Umar also introduced land reform following the conquest of agricultural countries like Iraq, Iran and Egypt. Umar took a bold step in abolishing absentee landlordism and changing the Islamic Empire's whole pattern of land ownership. Moreover, Umar’sprinciple of al-shura best explains the efficacy of collective governance. Al-shura is an Arabic term and means mutual consultation. This principle demonstrates many vital values for governance, including transparency, accountability, respect, empowerment, freedom of expression, the dignity of the human individual and cooperation all together in one practice. In addition, it proves that Islamic governance appreciates and welcomes other parties and entities in its decision-making system. These entities kept on expanding and growing, with their members consisting of leaders from various tribes, who were proven to be qualified, including ‘Ali Ibn ’Abi Talib, ‘Uthman Ibn al-‘Affan, Talhah, ‘Ubaydillah, al-Zubayr ‘Awwam, Sa‘d ’Abi Waqqas, and ‘Abdul Rahman Ibn ‘Auf. They were the meeting members, especially when deciding on important matters. Caliph Umar gave a message to them, saying, “I find out that all of you are the leaders of your community and all matters that need to be decided stop upon all of you” This principle and practice also stipulate `Rida Al Awam’, which is popular consent; `ijtihad jama`i’; which is collective deliberation and `Mas`Uliyah Jama’iyyah’, which is a collective responsibility, as a prerequisite to the establishment of Islamic effective governance. Umar’s Initiatives In Professionalizing Administration Umar was an excellent administrator. He established a Shura (consultative council) and sought advice on matters of state. He divided the far-flung empire into the provinces of Makkah, Madinah, Syria, Jazira (the fertile region between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq), Basra, Khorasan, Azerbaijan, Persia and Egypt. A Governor, answerable to the Caliph, was appointed for each province. The responsibilities and the limits of each Governor’s authority were clearly defined. Governors who misused their office were severely punished. The executive and the judiciary were separated and Qadis were appointed to administer justice. Appointing a Governor in the Basra province, Umar wrote to him, “Listen, you are not appointed to rule over the necks of the people, but to guide them on the right path, which you know from the Qur’ān and the Sunnah of the Prophet.” While the governor was the head of provincial administration, Collector (Amil) was the head of the finance and revenue department. The Caliph was the Chief Judge of the Empire. There were also Qadis in the provinces assisted by a team of judicial experts in Shari’ah. Besides Qur’anic injections and Sunnah in judicial matters, Ijma (collective opinion) was also allowed. Umar was open-minded accepted, and adopted what was good in other civilizations. Where applicable, he learned to adopt the conquered people's technologies and administrative practices. His achievements are codified into the Await – i-Umar, the forty-one initiatives of Umar. Windmills were in extensive use in Persia at the time and Umar ordered the construction of windmills in several Arab cities, including Madinah. When Abu Hurairah returned with a large booty from Bahrain, there were differences among the Madinites as to how it was to be divided. Khalid bin Walid, observing the divisions, suggested to the Caliph that a documentation department be set up in Madinah similar to the ones he had seen in Persia. Caliph Umar enquired about the Persian practices and ordered a department of documentation after satisfying himself that they could indeed be applied to the Caliphate. As most Arabs were illiterate, he hired Persian scribes to man this new department. The writers documented each item of booty and the claims on each so that the Caliph could equitably divide it among the claimants. Later, the department was expanded to document all treasury and army transactions. Following the example of Umar,the compilation and maintenance of documentation became an honoured profession among Muslims, Caliphs and Sultans alike, down to the Ottomans in modern times, kept this tradition alive. During the caliphate of Umar, Islamic jurisprudence and its methodologies based on the Qur’an, Sunnah, Ijma and Qiyas were fully established. The edicts of Umar reflecting the consensus of the Companions provided the foundation for the Maliki School of Fiqh (jurisprudence) that emerged a hundred years later. Streamlining The Armed Forces The conquest of such a vast area in such a relatively short time soon created challenging administrative problems for Umar. Since the Arabs had no experience as rulers of an empire, they were forced to rely significantly on the bureaucracies created by the Byzantine and Sassanian governments. Nevertheless, Umar is credited with introducing several new administrative practices and institutions which,in conjunction with the customary practice of the conquered lands, gave stability to the Arab occupation and allowed the conquests to maintain their momentum. Umar established garrison cities, first in Iraq and later in Egypt, to administer the newly conquered territory and to serve as bases for the invasion of Persia. In this way, Basra and Kufa were founded by Umar in 635, both of which became important centres of Islamic civilization. At the same time as Umar’s armies were achieving victory in Persia, still, another army was invading Egypt. Between 639 and 642, the Arabs succeeded in driving the Byzantines from Egypt and establishing a Muslim government there. Again, Umar’s policy of establishing new garrison cities was followed by the founding of al-Fustât, later to become Cairo. With astonishing speed, Umar spread Arab Muslim rule from Persia to Egypt. He forged a remarkable unity in the empire by appointing provincial officials loyal to him and his principles and setting a stern example of piety and morality in the capital. He is celebrated in Arabic historiography for his unaffected, rough manner and devotion to his religion - the prototype of the unspoiled Arab ruler. A Model Revenue System Umar paid great attention to improving the state finances, which were placed on a sound footing. He had established the “Diwan” or the finance department to which the revenues administration was entrusted.The land was surveyed and agriculture was encouraged. Old canals were excavated and new ones built. Large areas of land were brought under cultivation. Roads were laid out and were regularly patrolled. A traveller could move safety from Egypt to Khorasan in Central Asia. The vast territories of West Asia and North Africa were welded into a free trade zone. Trade fostered prosperity. Education was encouraged and teachers paid. The study of the Qur’an, hadith, language, literature, writing and calligraphy received patronage. Umar was himself a poet of repute and a noted orator. Over 4,000 mosques were built during the caliphate of Umar. The revenue of the commonwealth was derived from three sources (1) Zakat, or the tax levied on a gradual scale on all Muslims possessing means, (2) Kharaj, or the land tax levied on dhimmis, and (3) Jizyah or capitation tax. The last two taxes for which the western historians have much condemned the Muslims were realised in the Roman and Sasanid (Persian) Empires. The Muslims only followed the old precedents in this respect. The taxes realised by the non-Muslims were far less burdensome than those realised by the Muslims. Islam, which preached a socialist type of state, laid greater emphasis on the equitable and fair distribution of wealth. The hoarding of wealth was against the teachings of Islam. The second Caliph scrupulously followed these tenets. He founded a Baitul Mal (Public treasury) whose primary function was the distribution rather than wealth accumulation. The Caliph himself took very little from the Baitul Mal. His ancestral occupation was business. Naturally, he had to be paid some honorarium for his holy office. The matter was referred to the special committee in which the opinion of Ali was accepted that the Caliph should get as much honorarium from the Baitul Mal as would suffice for the necessities of an ordinary citizen. The Caliph fixed land revenue rates according to the land type. While he charged four dirhams for one Jarib of wheat, he charged two dirhams for a similar plot of barley. Nothing was set for the pastures and uncultivated lands. The Jerib or Djerib is a traditional unit of land measurement in the Middle East and southwestern Asia. It is a unit of area used to measure landholdings. In this way, he systematised the fixation of revenues, which, before his time, was charged haphazardly. Different rules were framed for the revenues of Egypt, whose agricultural output depended on the flood of the Nile. According to reliable historical sources, the annual revenue of Iraq amounted to 860 million dirhams, an amount which never exceeded after the death of the great Caliph. However, he was very lenient in his realisation. The main reason behind this easy realisation of the state money was that his people had become very prosperous. Umar introduced far-reaching reforms in the agricultural sector, which we do not find even in the most civilized countries in modern times. One of these was the abolition of zamindari (landlordism), which brought freedom for tenants from exploitation. When the Romans conquered Syria and Egypt, they confiscated the lands of the tillers of the soil and allotted these to the army, nobles, churches and the members of the royal family. On the conquest of these countries, Umar returned these properties to the local inhabitants who were the rightful owners of the land. The just and benevolent Caliph was exceptionally generous to the local tillers of the soil and even issued strict orders that no other persons, including the Muslim soldiers who were spread all over these countries, should be granted any piece of land for cultivation purposes. Such steps by the Caliph restored confidence among the local population and gave great impetus to agriculture in these countries. This resulted in an enormous increase in agricultural output. The tenancy became prosperous, and their standard of living was much raised. It led to the easy realisation of land revenues by the custodians of the state. The liberal policy followed by the Arabs in the fixation on revenues and their land reforms immensely helped their military conquests. Due to this liberal policy of the second Caliph, the Christian Copts of Egypt who were farmers always sided with the Muslim Arabs in preference to Roman Christians. The Caliph was not content with just these reforms. He worked out beneficial schemes for the advancement of agriculture and constructed irrigation canals, wells and tanks in his vast dominions. He established a public welfare department that looked after such construction works and furthered these beneficial schemes. The celebrated historian Allama Maqrizi says that more than one lac and twenty thousand labourers were continually employed in such works throughout the year in Egypt alone. Several canals were constructed in Khuzistan and Ahwaz during this period. A canal called “Nahr-Amirul Momineen” connected the Nile with the Red Sea was constructed to ensure quick grain transport from Egypt to the holy land. Establishment Of Autonomous Institutions It was during Umar’s caliphate that Muslim religious and political institutions arose which were to be the model for future generations. Among these were: the dīwān (‘stipend register’), a form of the welfare state by which annual stipends were paid to all Muslims from the public treasury; regulations for non-Muslim subjects (dhimmi); military garrisons which later became the great cities of Islam, e.g. Kūfā and Fustat; the office of Qāḍi (judge); religious ordinances such as obligatory nightly prayers in the month of Ramaḍān; civil and penal codes; the Hijra calendar; and the standardization of the text of the Qur’ān. One of the reforms to the political administration under Umar’s reign was the inception of a consultative assembly. Civil and social administration reforms during Umar’s era provide a compelling exemplar for the fact that his actions enabled the Islamic caliphate to shape itself into the ideal Ummah based on the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Umar’s Diverse Initiatives For Improving The Prosperity Of The Kingdom And The Welfare Of The Citizens. · Repaired old bridges and roads and new ones were built. A population census was conducted on the lines of the Chinese in the Tang dynasty. · SuggestedAadhan (Muslim call to prayer) to the Prophet on the lines of what he saw in a dream. · Established Baitul Mal (State Treasury). · Established courts and instituted the office of judgeship. Created the office of Qadi (title Hakim u Shara). Appointed special Judges in Palestine and Damascus to lead prayers and administer justice. Fixed salaries for judges (Zaib bin Thabit was a salaried judge in Madinah), made the judiciary autonomous from the executive branch of the government. · Introduced Islamic calendar starting with the era of Hijra (AH), the first day of the lunar year in which emigration took place, namely 16th July 622. Introduced Old Age Pensions. · Founded military cantonments (Amsar) at Kufa (18AH-640), Basra (17AH-639), and Fustat. Nominated junior officers such as Aarif and commanders of the marches. Built frontier fortresses (Ar. Hisn). · Instituted the congregational prayer of Tarawih, during Ramadan. · Set punishment for drunkenness& adultery at eighty lashes. · Adopted the title of Ameer ul Mu’mineen (Commander of the Faithful) instead of Khalifa Rasulullah. · Fixed cash salaries for army officers, soldiers and volunteers, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. · Established the department of finance under the name Diwan (Registrar). A register was kept of all persons, men, women and children (Muslim & non-Muslims) entitled to stipends. Stipends were assigned according to the priority of conversion to Islam and affinity, and service rendered to the Apostle of Allah on battlefields. · Conducted census of the population for distribution of revenues. · Established tithe on agricultural production for distribution to the poor (except cereals). · Taxed agricultural production generated by river water. · Established the prison houses. Purchased the house of Safwan bin Umayya for 4000 dirhams, and converted it into a prison house. · Made it compulsory for soldiers to wear the metal jacket. Soldiers are to be repatriated home after four months of war duty on temporary leave. · Started nocturnal patrolling to ascertain the welfare of the population. Introduced night watches. · Created the office of Sahib us-Shurta (Captain of the Guard), and re-organized the police department. · Established spy agency. Started muster rolls (inspection of the soldiers) · Established Majlis Shura (consultative body of trusted advisors) · Constructed caravansaries on the road between Makkah and Madinah · Established daily allowances for poor Christians and Jews. · Initiated compilation of Qur’an under the mentorship of Abu Bakr. · The established principle of Qiyas (analogical reasoning) in Islamic jurisprudence. · Introduced the pronouncement of ‘As-Salatu Khairum Min Naum’ in daybreak (Fajr) prayer. · Declared three pronouncements of divorce without a prescribed period, inadmissible. · Declared specific punishment for lampooning. · Levied zakat (obligatory social tax) on horses sold in trading. · Instituted a system of waqf (religious endowments) and donated his own land for this purpose. · Introduced the practice of the Friday sermon. · Established stipends for imams and muezzins. · Forbade mentioning a woman by name in poetry. · Levied zakat (poor tax) instead of jizyah (capitation tax) on the Christian tribe of Banu Tughlab. · Started allowances for orphan children, as well as the poor and disabled. · Issued an ordinance that no Arab should be made a slave. An important step towards the abolition of slavery. · Established aStatearchive for the safe custody and preservation of the records of the Caliphate. · Introduced a postal system to receive up-to-date reports from the battlefront, as also communications from the soldiers to their families. · Created the office of Hajib (Chamberlain). · Constructed a network of canals in Iraq, and appointed special officers for their supervision. Re-excavated a disused canal in Egypt (between the Nile and the Red Sea, which remained navigable for eighty years. The canal was called Khalij Ameer ul Mu’mineen). Built two dams in Makkah after floodwater penetrated Masjid al-Haram. · Ordered mensuration of land, field by field in Syria, Iraq and Persia and fixed assessment on a uniform basis. This land survey (Ar. yamsah) gives the area of land, quality of the soil, and nature of produce. · Divided conquered lands into provinces and appointed Ameers (Governors). Lands in the conquered countries were held by the State; income was distributed to people. · Introduced the art of coinage (a silver dirham with inscription Alhamdulillah, or Muhammad Rasulullah, or La Ilaha illala Wahdahu.) · Forbade the sale of holdings and agricultural lands in the conquered countries to ensure the prosperity of the agricultural classes. Also, no Muslim could acquire land from natives of the soil. · Promulgated Covenant of Umar (outlining fiscal, religious, and civil regulations for non-Muslim subjects). · Appointed teachers in every country whose job it was to instruct people in the teachings of the Qur’an. Founded schools and set up endowments for their upkeep in every part of the empire. Education was made compulsory both for boys and girls. Army Reforms In the early days of Islam, there was no standing army. On the occasion of any battle, contingents were raised from the various tribes and these were disbanded when the battle was over. No regular salaries were paid. Those who fought were compensated by distributing the spoils of war among them. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a State Department. This reform was introduced in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the Ansars and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia. A register of all adults who could be called to war was prepared, and a scale of salaries was fixed. The scale was: · Those who had fought in the battle of Badr 5,000 dirhams. · Those who had fought in the battle of Uhud 4,000 dirhams. · Those who had migrated before the conquest of Makkah 3,000 dirhams. · Those who had embraced Islam at the time of the conquest of Makkah 2,000 dirhams · Those who had fought in the battles of Yermuk or Qadissiya 2,000 dirhams. · For the Yamanites 400 dirhams · Those who had fought after the battles of Yermuk and Qadissiya 300 dirhams. · The rest 200 dirhams · All men registered were liable to military service. They were divided into two categories, namely: · Those who formed the regular standing army; and · Those who lived in their homes, but were liable to be called to the columns whenever needed. Important Initiatives For Effective Functioning Of Military Logistics · For army administration, Umar established military centres which were called ‘Jund’. These centers were set up at Madinah, Kufa, Basra, Mosul, Fustat, Damascus, Jordan and Palestine. At these centres, barracks were built for the residence of troops. Big stables were constructed where four thousand fully equipped horses were kept ready at every centre for service at short notice. All records about the army were kept at military centres. · In addition to military centres, cantonments were established in big towns and places of strategic importance. Under the Army Department, there was a separate Commissariat Department. All the food stores were collected at one place, and from there disbursed on the first of every month. Pay and Bhatta were disbursed at different times. The pay was paid at the beginning of the Moharram. The Bhatta was paid in spring and some extra allowances were paid during the harvesting season. Every tribal unit had its leader called Arifs. Such units under Arifs were grouped and each group was under a Commander called Umar-ul-Ashar. Promotions in the army were made on the strength of the length of service or exceptional merit. Expeditions were undertaken according to seasons. Expeditions in cold countries were undertaken during the summer and in hot countries in winter. In spring, the troops were generally sent to lands that had a salubrious climate and a good pasturage. Much thought was given to sanitation in the layout of cantonments and the construction of barracks. Special provisions were made for roads and streets in cantonments, and Umar issued instructions prescribing the width of roads and streets. Incentives For Army Men · When the army was on the march, it always halted on Fridays. When on the march, the day’s march was never allowed to be so long as to debilitate the troops. The stages were selected concerning the availability of water and other provisions. · Leave of absence was given to army men at regular intervals. The troops stationed at far-off places were given leave once a year and sometimes twice. · Each army corps was accompanied by an officer of the treasury, an Accountant, dhimmi, and several interpreters besides several physicians and surgeons. · Umar issued instructions laying stress on the teaching of four things to the soldiers, namely: horse-racing; archery; walking barefoot, and swimming. · On the battlefield, the army was divided into sections. These sections were: Qalb or the centre; every soldier was required to keep a personal inventory of essential items. These included needles, cotton, twine, scissors, and a feeding bag. Catapults were used extensively in siege operations. Under Umar, another machine employed in siege operations was Dabbabah. It was a wooden tower that moved on wheels and consisted of several floors. The tower was wheeled up to the foot of the fort under siege, and then the walls were pierced by stone throwers’ wall-piercers and archers who manned the Dabbabah. Suitable arrangements were made for the construction of roads and bridges. These operations were usually performed by the conquered people under the supervision of the Muslim army. A remarkable feature of the army organization under Umar was that he had complete control over the army at all times as if he were present in person in every field. Espionage and intelligence services in the army were well organized. Reporters were attached to every unit, and they kept the Caliph fully informed about everything about the military. Justice In Handling Conquered Territories Umar ruled more than 14 hundred years ago. The total area of his caliphate was around 23 lakh square miles continuously expanding its frontiers. To rule over such a big caliphate stretched from Libya to Makran and from Yemen to Armenia,Umar had to establish an entirely new administrative system. For the Arabs, it was for the first time that such a central government was established. Umar believed in Shura and what today we call the devolution of power. He would not decide without the consultation of the assembly of the greatest companions people were also consulted on matters of special significance. He used to say: "There is no concept of a caliphate without consultation". The roots of modern democracy can be seen in the administration of Um of Umara time when the whole world was ruled by despotic kings and emperors. Supervision of Governors Umar divided the whole country into provinces and smaller units. He followed a very strict standard for the appointment of Governors and took particular care to appoint men of approved integrity to high offices under the state. He kept a watch over them like a hawk, and as soon as any lapse on their part came to his notice, immediate action was taken. Before assuming his responsibility, a Governor was required to declare his assets and a complete inventory of his possessions was prepared and kept in record. If an unusual increase was reported in the assets of a Governor, he was immediately called to account and the unlawful property was confiscated by the state. At the time of appointment, a Governor was required to pledge: (1) that he would not ride a Turkish horse; (2) that he would not wear fine clothes; (3) that he would not eat sifted flour; (4) that he would not keep a porter at his door; and (5) that he would always keep his door open to the public. This is how it was ensured that Governors and Principal Officers would behave like common people and not like some extraordinary or heavenly creatures. The Governors were required to come to Makkah on the occasion of the Hajj. In public assembly, Hazrat Umar would invite all those who had any grievance against any office to present the complaint. In the event of complaints, inquiries were made immediately and grievances redressed on the spot. The caliph also established a special office for the investigation of complaints against the Governors. The department was under the charge of Muhammad bin Maslamah Ansari, a man of undisputed integrity. In important cases, Muhammad bin Maslamah was deputed by the caliph to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an inquiry commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions, the officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Madinah and put to explanation by the caliph himself. ----- Moin Qazi is the author of the bestselling book, Village Diary of a Heretic Banker. He has worked in the development finance sector for almost four decades. Other Parts of the Article: Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part One: Timeline Of The Life Of Caliph Umar Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Two: Glimpses Of The Biography That Shaped His Destiny As Well As That Of Islam Umar Al Farooq - The Great Caliph - Part Three: A Paragon Of Nobility URL: https://newageislam.com/books-documents/umar-farooq-caliph-reformer/d/128813 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism