The Enduring Impact of Ibn Hanbal: Tradition, Reason and Islamic Thought

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 20 November 2024 Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), the founder of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence, is a pivotal figure in Islamic intellectual history. His approach to Islamic law and theology is often defined by a commitment to traditionalism and an anti-rationalist stance, both of which have left a profound and lasting influence on Sunni thought. Ibn Hanbal’s rejection of rationalist methodologies in favour of strict textual literalism shaped the intellectual landscape of his time, and his ideas continue to influence modern Islamic scholarship. This article explores the key elements of Ibn Hanbal’s thought, focusing on his traditionalist jurisprudence, anti-rationalist critique of theological speculation, and the historical context that informed his views. Traditionalism in Ibn Hanbal’s Jurisprudence Central to Ibn Hanbal’s legal philosophy was his unwavering dedication to the Quran and Hadith as the ultimate sources of Islamic law. Unlike the Shafi'i and Hanafi schools, which accepted the use of personal judgment (Ra’y) and analogical reasoning (Qiyas), Ibn Hanbal rejected these methods. He regarded them as unreliable and prone to deviation from the authentic teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. His jurisprudence emphasized the preservation of the practices of the early Muslim community, focusing on maintaining continuity with the guidance of the Prophet and his companions. Ibn Hanbal’s scepticism towards personal judgment and analogy stemmed from his belief in the sufficiency of the Quran and Hadith, which he saw as the clearest expression of Islamic law. This led him to favour a conservative approach that minimized human interpretation and sought to avoid innovations (Bid’ah) that might distort the original teachings of Islam. His commitment to textual authority also extended to his Hadith studies, where he meticulously compiled the Musnad, ensuring the authenticity of the Prophet's sayings through rigorous verification of the chain of transmission (Isnad). This meticulous approach to Hadith studies not only influenced his own legal rulings but also shaped the Hanbali school’s emphasis on the primacy of texts over speculation. Anti-Reasoning Perspectives Ibn Hanbal’s rejection of rationalist theology is a hallmark of his intellectual legacy. He strongly opposed the speculative theology of the Mutazilites, who advocated for the use of reason and logic to interpret divine attributes. Ibn Hanbal viewed their intellectualism as a dangerous deviation from the purity of faith, believing that theological speculation threatened to undermine the foundational principles of Islam. For him, the divine attributes of God should be understood as presented in the Quran and Hadith, without relying on human intellect or philosophical reasoning. This literalist approach, grounded in his belief in the infallibility of these sacred texts, left no room for the kind of rationalization that characterized the Kalam debates of his era. (The Kalam debates refer to discussions and arguments surrounding the Kalam cosmological argument, a philosophical argument for the existence of God. This argument asserts that the universe had a beginning and therefore must have a cause, which is often attributed to God.) Moreover, Ibn Hanbal was critical of Greek philosophy, especially the influence of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic ideas, which had permeated Islamic thought during the Abbasid period. He regarded these foreign intellectual traditions as incompatible with the pure teachings of Islam, reinforcing the Hanbali school’s resistance to incorporating philosophical reasoning into Islamic theology. The historical circumstances surrounding Ibn Hanbal’s life were instrumental in shaping his commitment to traditionalism and anti-rationalism. One of the most significant events was the Mihna, a period of theological persecution under the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun, during which the Mutazilite doctrine of the createdness of the Quran was enforced. Ibn Hanbal’s refusal to endorse this doctrine led to his imprisonment and torture, solidifying his position as a staunch defender of orthodoxy. The Mihna reinforced his distrust of rationalist theology and deepened his commitment to a literal understanding of the Quran and Hadith. In the aftermath, the Ash’ari school emerged, offering a response to the intellectual climate shaped by the Mutazilites. Although the Ash’arites shared some of Ibn Hanbal’s skepticism toward rationalism, they were more willing to engage reason in their theological discussions. Nonetheless, the Ash’arites were heavily influenced by Ibn Hanbal’s emphasis on textual sources and his rejection of speculative theology, which had a lasting impact on the development of Sunni orthodoxy. The Impact of Hanbali Jurisprudence on Wahhabism In the 18th century, the rise of Wahhabism marked a significant shift in Islamic thought. Emerging in the Najd region under the leadership of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792), Wahhabism represented a radical revival of the Hanbali tradition. It reawakened Ibn Hanbal’s core tenets, particularly the emphasis on a literal interpretation of the Quran and Hadith, while striving to return to what it saw as the "pure" form of Islam practiced by the earliest generations of Muslims (al-salaf al-ṣaliḥ). Wahhabism mirrored Ibn Hanbal’s rejection of speculative theology, but with an even sharper focus on purging Islamic practices of what it considered innovations (bid’ah). Like Ibn Hanbal, Wahhabism rejected intellectualized approaches to theology, stressing a strict adherence to the literal texts, particularly with regard to the divine attributes. The rivalry between the Hanbali and Ash'ari schools reached its peak during the rise of the Ash'ari school in the 11th century. Ash'arites, with their rationalist approach and allegorical interpretations of ambiguous Quranic verses, became formidable rivals to Hanbalism. This theological rivalry fueled intense debates, with Hanbali scholars accusing the Ash’arites of compromising the purity of Islam by introducing reason into the interpretation of divine texts. Wahhabism, emerging in the 18th century, positioned itself as the true heir to Hanbali thought, claiming a direct lineage to Ibn Hanbal’s strict literalism. By rejecting Ash’ari theology and maintaining an uncompromising stance on textual interpretation, Wahhabism sought to purify Islam and restore it to what it perceived as its original, untainted form. From Reasoning to Literalism According to Hanbal, all people who prioritise reasoning had to be banned, and their books had to be buried. (Melchert, pp. 234–237). In fact, Hanbal did not even consider these People of Reason to be Muslims, even advocating their execution. Anyone who declared that the Quran was “created,” he said, must be asked to repent; if he refuses, he must be killed. (Melchert, p. 240). In Hanbalite eyes, the tradition of the Prophet became an all-encompassing source of wisdom that defined everything. Ahmad Hanbal was famous for never having eaten a single watermelon because he could find no precedent for that in the tradition of the Prophet. (Coulson, p. 71). In another instance, he is reported to have asked his wife Rayhana to stop wearing a certain kind of shoe because “it didn’t exist in the Prophet’s time.” (Cooperson, p. 112). To be fair, not all People of Tradition were as rigid as Hanbal. His teacher, al-Shafi, was a little more flexible, and some have defined al-Shafi’s school as “semi-rationalist.” (Melchert, pp. 248–49). Some even started to argue that these Hadiths were so authoritative that they could abrogate the Quran. (Sachedina, pp. 186–248). This ascendance of the tradition (Sunna), which was constructed two centuries after the Prophet it claimed to represent, would lead to the creation of what French historian Maxime Rodinson calls “the post-Quranic ideology.” This would be quite different from that of the Quran, which “accord[ed] a greater role to reasoning and rationality.” (Rodinson, pp. 138, 137). These “pre-existing attitudes and customs” crept into the Shariah via Hadiths attributed to the Prophet. The seclusion of women was a case in point. The Quran ordered seclusion only for the wives of the Prophet Muhammad, as a sign of their unique status. Yet in the Byzantine and Persian cultures that Muslims gradually adopted, it was customary for upper-class women to be secluded from all men but their own. The egalitarianism of Islam paradoxically spread this upper-class seclusion, and “the Quranic injunctions to propriety were stretched, by way of hadith, to cover the fashionable latter-day seclusion.” (Hodgson, Vol 1, pp. 342–43). The rules regulating the affairs of the dhimmis—the protected Jews, Christians, and others—became less tolerant as time went by and Muslims adopted, often via the Hadiths, the attitudes of the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires. (Friedmann, pp. 197–98). In 813, Harun’s son, al-Ma’mun, a Rationalist by conviction, sat on the Abbasid throne. Word has it that the young caliph once had a dream in which he saw Aristotle, who told him that “reason and revelation” were not just compatible but also mutually supportive, and that a good Muslim ruler should encourage both. (Lyons, p. 77). As a Rationalist, al-Ma’mun was interested in theological debates, including interfaith ones. He invited Abu Qurra, a Greek Orthodox bishop from Syria, to his court, and the latter defended Christian theology while the caliph tried to refute his arguments—all in a civilized manner. Al-Ma’mun and his successors would continue to welcome discourse with Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, Buddhists, and many others—helping Islamdom flourish intellectually. (Karabell, p. 48). Al-Mutawakkil even “ordered that wooden images of devils be nailed to the doors of their [the non-Muslims’] homes to distinguish them from those of Muslims.” (Stillman, p. 168). At the beginning of the eleventh century, Mahmud of Ghazni, ruler of a vast area covering today’s Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, carried the policy to extremes. He launched a brutal campaign to kill all the Mutazilites and other “heretics” by “crucifying them, imprisoning them, [or] exiling them.” He also “ordered the cursing of them from the pulpits of the Muslims. And he threatened every group from the ahl al-bida (innovators) and drove them away from their homes.” (Hanne, p. 70). Back in Baghdad, the caliph soon coped with the tone. He declared that anyone who called the Quran created—a cornerstone of Mutazilite theology—would be deemed an infidel and his blood would be shed. (ibid). The Traditionalist victory had permanent consequences for Muslim thinking. “In the very early period the Muslims interpreted the Quran pretty freely,” notes the late Fazlur Rahman, the prominent Muslim modernist theologian. “But after the 2nd century . . . the lawyers neatly tied themselves and the Community down . . . and theology became buried under the weight of literalism.” (Rahman, pp. 39–40). The Traditionalists also swept aside the individualist spirit of the Quran, for they “cared little for the individual and his personal experience.” Instead, they emphasized “almost exclusively the social content of Islam . . . [and] refused to allow the individual the right of creative thinking.” (Turner, pp. 240, 241). Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhabis followers, who became known as Wahhabis, started a militant campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which they condemned for Sufism and other “innovations.” The empire kept in check these latter-day Hanbalis—who also had a “Kharijite zeal”—until World War I, when the British Empire decided to destroy Ottoman power and establish Arabia as an independent state. (Hodgson, vol. 3, p. 181). The Wahhabi-British connection against the Ottoman Turks was a strategic alliance forged in the 19th century. Britain, seeking to expand its influence in the Middle East, found common ground with the Wahhabi movement, led by the Saudi family, in their opposition to Ottoman rule. The British Empire, eager to weaken the Ottoman Empire's hold on the region, covertly supported the Wahhabis through financial and military aid. This collaboration enabled the Wahhabis to challenge Ottoman authority, particularly in the Arabian Peninsula. Key events illustrating this alliance include the British backing of the Saudi-Wahhabi forces against the Ottoman-backed Hashemites during the Arab Revolt (1916-1918) and Britain's diplomatic recognition of the Saudi state in 1926. This alliance significantly contributed to the eventual decline of Ottoman power and the rise of the Saudi state, reshaping regional dynamics. This pragmatic alliance between a puritanical Islamic movement and a Western colonial power illustrates how Wahhabi theology, with its rigid exclusivism, could be co-opted to serve broader political aims. Reason, Tradition, and the Legacy of Ibn Hanbal The emergence of Wahhabism as a global Muslim power is closely tied to the legacy of Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his rejection of rationalist approaches in Islamic thought. Ibn Hanbal's insistence on strict adherence to the Quran and Hadith, along with his resistance to speculative theology, laid the foundation for a tradition of thought that prioritized textual sources over intellectual inquiry. This focus on the literal interpretation of religious texts, without room for philosophical exploration, was a hallmark of the Hanbali school and remained influential in Sunni Islam. Wahhabism, which originated in the 18th century under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, sought to revive and enforce this Hanbali tradition, advocating for a puritanical approach to Islam that emphasized strict adherence to the perceived "authentic" teachings of the Prophet and rejected any form of innovation or deviation from these teachings. This revival of Hanbali literalism contributed to a broader decline in intellectual diversity within the Muslim world, as it emphasized uniformity in belief and practice at the expense of critical thought and scholarly engagement with the evolving needs of contemporary society. Wahhabism’s rise also represents a broader rejection of the intellectual contributions made by earlier Islamic scholars, particularly those of the Mu’tazila. The Mu’tazila, with their emphasis on reason and rationalism, challenged the established orthodoxy by proposing that God's attributes should be understood in a manner that preserved His unity and avoided anthropomorphism. They also argued that the Quran was created, a position that stood in stark contrast to the traditional view of the Quran as eternal and uncreated. The Mu’tazila's rational approach to theology and their efforts to reconcile reason with faith were seen as a challenge to the traditional, conservative interpretations of Islam. The ascendance of Wahhabism, with its staunch anti-rationalist stance, effectively marginalized the intellectual legacy of the Mu’tazila and other schools of thought that valued philosophical inquiry. By reinforcing the primacy of traditionalist interpretations and rejecting intellectual speculation, Wahhabism contributed to the degeneration of Islamic intellectualism, stifling the kind of debate and inquiry that had once characterized the Muslim world. The legacy of Ibn Hanbal, revived and radicalized by Wahhabism, is central to understanding the intellectual decline within the contemporary Muslim world. While Ibn Hanbal's original aim was to preserve the purity of Islamic teachings against the perceived dangers of philosophical speculation, his anti-rationalist approach inadvertently paved the way for a worldview that was resistant to modernity and intellectual pluralism. Wahhabism's global influence has reinforced a vision of Islam that is rigid, literal, and resistant to adaptation, leading to a decline in the robust intellectual traditions that once flourished in the Muslim world. This shift has had lasting consequences on Islamic scholarship, reducing its capacity to engage with modern philosophical, scientific, and ethical challenges. The legacy of Ibn Hanbal, while preserving traditional interpretations of Islam, has thus become a significant barrier to the renewal of Islamic intellectualism in the face of contemporary global challenges. Bibliography Bryan S. Turner, ed., Islam: Critical Concepts in Sociology, vol. 1, Oxford: Routledge, 2003 Cooperson, Michael, Classical Arabic Biography: The Heirs of the Prophets in the Age of Al-Mamun, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 Coulson, Noel James, A History of Islamic Law, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994 Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 Hanne, Eric J, Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate, Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007 Hodgson, G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 1, The Classical Age of Islam, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977 Karabell, Zachary, People of the Book: The Forgotten History of Islam and the West, London: John Murray Publishers, 2007 Lyons, Jonathan, The House of Wisdom: How the Arabs Transformed Western Civilization, London: Bloomsbury, 2010 Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, vol. 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977 Melchert, Christopher, “The Adversaries of Ahmad Ibn Hanbal,” Arabica, April 1997 Rahman, Fazlur, Islam, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979 Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, London: Saqi Books, 2007 Sachedina, Abdulaziz, The Prolegomena to the Quran, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 Stillman, Norman A, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book, Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1979 ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. Also Read: Hanbalism as a Restraint on Islamic Intellectual Inquiry URL: https://www.newageislam.com/islamic-personalities/ibn-hanbal-tradition-reason-islamic-thought/d/133764 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Islam, Hinduism, and Beyond: India’s Legacy of Peaceful Coexistence

By Dr. Khwaja Iftikhar Ahmad, Tr. New Age Islam 20 November 2024 India: A Beacon of Unity in Diversity Main Points: 1. Unity in Diversity: India’s uniqueness lies in its ability to unite diverse cultures, religions, and ideologies, fostering peaceful coexistence among Hinduism, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and more. 2. Historical Significance of India: India is the birthplace of humanity, where Prophet Adam and Eve first lived, and the origin of key religious and cultural movements like Islam, Sanatan Dharma, Buddhism, and Jainism. 3. Islam’s Role in India: Islam’s peaceful introduction to India is highlighted, with Muslim traders establishing the first mosque during Prophet’s time. It emphasizes the peaceful coexistence of Muslims, Hindus, and other religious communities. 4. Modern India’s Global Role: India’s growing global influence is highlighted, with the largest Muslim population, a central role in the global economy, and a significant presence in international services, particularly in the Gulf and developed countries. ----- Our beloved homeland, India, is a name that represents a unique unity on Earth. If we were to describe it as a bouquet, and base its definition and explanation on this, we would certainly encounter some facts that are often overlooked. It is essential that the unity of this land, which has emerged as a living example of collective pride, shines like a lamp whose light guides the way for others. Regional and global unities, the surrounding civilizations, cultures, societies, thought and philosophy of life, politics, and governance—indeed, no aspect of life remains unaffected by the thoughts and ideologies originating from this land of ours, India. What is it about this India, called Bharat, which makes it unique? The honour of being the first to take the first step of humanity on Earth belongs to this land. The first human, Prophet Adam (peace be upon him), and the first of the 124,000 Prophets, were sent to this Earth by Allah Almighty. This reveals that the origin, growth, development, and beautification of human life, including language, relationships, and all aspects of life, began here. Not only that, but the first woman, Eve (Hawwa peace be upon her), the first wife, the first mother, and the birth of the first child of Adam (peace be upon him) also took place on this very land. This is why the majority of Hindus call India their eternal and divine land, "Sanatan Bhumi." Thus, we understand that the journeys of Islam and Sanatan (Hinduism) both began from this land, from the same family, and the same parents. Over time, differences in beliefs and ideologies began, leading to the emergence of contrasting philosophies and conflicting ideologies, but that is a separate discussion for another time. The Messenger of Allah, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), did not say this by chance: "The wind of heaven from the land of India reach me." This statement has two purposes: one is the creation of Adam on this land, and the other is the acceptance of Islam in this region with great enthusiasm. Today, if we combine the populations of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (which were once all part of India, and where Prophet Adam was sent), the total population comes to 185 crore (1.85 billion), which includes approximately 70 crore Muslims, 100 crore Hindus, and others of different religions. In practice, India today is the country with the largest Muslim population in the world. The way Islam spread here, and continues to spread, is nothing short of miraculous. Furthermore, Zoroastrians, who were persecuted in Iran, found refuge in India. Though small in number, the Parsi community holds significant influence, surpassing even Muslims in some respects. When Jews faced persecution, it was this land that first offered them sanctuary, followed by the Arabs and Ottomans. The birthplace of Mahatma Buddha and the origins of Buddhism are in India. Likewise, the birthplace of Mahavir Jain and Jainism is in India. The Sikh faith, the Khalsa Panth, also originated here, as did the Bahá'í faith. Islam made its appearance in India during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Muslim traders established the first mosque during his time, built by followers of Sanatan Dharma. There is no other instance like this. The honour of Islam coming here, establishing its roots, and being spread by the local Sanatan Dharma followers is unique to this land. Today, in this region, there are millions of followers of Tawhid (the oneness of God), lovers of the Prophet, and devotees of Ahl al-Bayt, living with dignity as equal citizens. Moving forward, the paths of Sufism, mysticism, and the Bhakti movement have been intertwined. The famous poet Hazrat Amir Khusro, who was beloved to a nation that worships 33 crore gods and goddesses, wrote of this land where the sound of "La ilaha illallah" (There is no god but Allah) echoes from five lakh mosques. This land became the centre of Islamic preaching, where large gatherings were held, and Islamic missionary groups travelled the country. The Jamaat-e-Islami, advocating for an Islamic government, also established its headquarters here. All Islamic sects practice their beliefs freely and peacefully, without conflict. The salaries of imams, the preservation of Islamic seminaries, and the support for educational institutions like Aligarh University have all been upheld by the Supreme Court of India. There are numerous examples that stand as evidence of this peaceful coexistence. Every political ideology, culture, language, civilization, and tradition has been welcomed in India for centuries. Contrasting views have flourished in an environment of freedom. Countless festivals, events, and diverse customs have thrived here without any conflict. Even those who believe in God and those who deny His existence have coexisted peacefully on the foundation of mutual respect and coexistence. After so much internal division, the lack of significant conflict is nothing short of a miracle. If I speak specifically about the Muslims of India, even though Muslim rulers may not have been of Indian descent but were Arabs, Iranians, Mongols, Turks, Mughals, or Afghans, they were nonetheless Muslims. Indian Muslims maintain a connection to these rulers with pride and consider it an essential part of their identity. Even when a time came when power seemed to shift towards the majority, a large group of the Muslim elite called for a separate homeland and succeeded in establishing Pakistan. However, the story doesn't end there. Nearly half the Muslim population, who lived as minorities in Hindu-majority states, was sacrificed for the creation of Pakistan. Yet, the presence of such a large Muslim population in India, coexisting peacefully with the majority, enjoying equal rights, privileges, and access to all positions of power, is something that no Muslim-majority country has managed with its minorities. During 800 years of Muslim rule, there were many examples of cooperation. Even in the face of opposition, Muslim generals and their forces fought alongside others. There is no comparable instance of betrayal like that of Mir Sadiq and Mir Jafar. But here in India, despite all these differences, everything continues with some complaints, but no serious disruptions. Today, India is the largest unity in terms of population. One in every five people in the world is Indian. Over two crore Indians around the world provide services at every level based on their professional expertise. The largest group, nearly one crore, is in the Gulf countries. In the developed world, our experts are making an impact in every field through their knowledge, skill, and research. India today holds a central position in the global economy and will soon be a permanent member of the United Nations. With the fastest-growing economy, India is on its way to becoming the third-largest economy in the world. In the end, I would like to say to our beloved homeland, India, and to all its citizens, leaders, those in power, civilized society, media, and voluntary organizations, that the greatness, dignity, identity, and uniqueness of this bouquet lie in the principle of unity in diversity and the ethics that have emerged from it, which this land is known for. Let us seek within our conscience the flaws and transgressions that have led to sectarianism, religious hatred, violence, and extremism—destructive and self-destructive ailments that seek to grip this beloved homeland. But rest assured, the conscience is still alive. This soil has enough strength to prevent its essence from falling apart. Insha Allah! Everything is in the protection of Allah. ------ November 15, 2024, Courtesy: Inquilab, New Delhi (Translated into English by Ghulam Ghaus Siddiqi, New Age Islam) Urdu Article: ہندوستان : ایک منفرد وحدت URL: https://www.newageislam.com/interfaith-dialogue/islam-hinduism-india-peaceful-coexistence/d/133763 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Bangaon’s Ghumaur Holi and the "Khan" Surname: A Glimpse into Bihar’s Rich Heritage

By Syed Amjad Hussain, New Age Islam 20 November 2024 Bangaon, A Village In Bihar, Is Known For Its Unique Tradition Of Maithil Brahmins Adopting The "Khan" Surname, A Practice Dating Back To The Mughal Era. The Village Is Celebrated For Its Cultural Harmony, Religious Festivals Like Ghumaur Holi, And Its Emphasis On Education And Community. Main Points: 1. Bangaon, a Maithil Brahmin-majority village in Bihar, is unique for its residents using the "Khan" surname, rooted in a historical event during the Mughal era. 2. The village celebrates Ghumaur Holi, a festival promoting religious harmony. 3. Bangaon has a rich educational legacy, producing numerous IAS and IPS officers. 4. Agriculture, especially paddy cultivation, is central to village life. 5. The Dharma Sabha, a weekly religious congregation, symbolises unity and cultural continuity in the village. ----- Sant Khiyali Khan Bangla Bangaon situated near the Temple of Bangaon ------ Bangaon is a small village within the rural settlement of Saharsa district in Bihar, and it is noticeable for its extraordinary demography, customs, and traditions preserved in the village since ages. This Brahmin-laden village, one of the biggest concentration areas of Brahmins in Bihar, is peculiar about its people feature - its people, largely Maithil Brahmin, are identified using the "Khan" surname, a prefix customarily appended to Muslims. Behind this uniqueness lies the salient cultural heritage and social traditions of the village and Bangladesh, which tell an interesting tale in terms of community and history. A Village of Many Brahmins Bangaon is located nearly 8 kilometres from the headquarters of Saharsa district and accommodates a population of more than 50,000 inhabitants. A vast majority of the people, which constitutes about 80 percent of the population, are Brahmins. The Brahmins here come from a multitude of gotras and the traditional surnames here follow the nomenclature "Jha" and "Thakur." Yet while "Khan" is a suffix used in the surnames of most Brahmins in Bangaon, this specific phenomenon has been strictly limited to this part of Bihar. Mystery of the "Khan" Suffix Name So why are these supposedly pure Maithil Brahmins adopting this "Khan" suffix name commonly associated with Muslim families? The intentions and the causative factors have not, so far been disclosed behind this phenomenon, yet several theories have been put forward in due course of time. One of the most accepted beliefs is that the use of the "Khan" surname traces its origin to the Mughal Empire. According to President's Awardee Pandit Raghuvansh Jha, it is said that this tradition was from the times when the Mughal emperor Akbar challenged several youths of Bangaon to prove their daredevilry. The challenge then was to kill the cuckoo resting on the cow without hurting the cow. The two brothers from Bangaon, Shiv Jha and Gajadhar Jha, accepted the challenge. They killed the cuckoo with their bow and arrow without damaging the cow. Impressed by their dare, the emperor entrusted the region to them and changed their surnames: Shiv Jha became "Shiv Khan," and Gajadhar Jha became "Gajadhar Thakur." This tradition has lived on over generations, and the Brahmins of Bangaon have continued to carry the surname "Khan" that has survived through the centuries. Pandit Raghuvansh Jha said, "This tale is older than centuries. Some people arrived here during the time of Akbar". They challenged the braveness of people here. They asked to kill a cuckoo situated on a cow but without causing any kind of harm to the cow. Afterward, two brothers from the village, Shiv Jha and Gajadhar Jha accepted the challenge. They took a bow and arrow and killed the cuckoo without harming the cow. The emperor got impressed by their bravery. He gave this kingdom to those two brothers. Along with the kingdom, their surnames were also changed. Shiv Jha was made Shiv Khan, and Gajadhar Jha became Gajadhar Thakur. This tradition has been followed ever since. This theory was further elaborated by Prof. Arun Kumar Khan, the former principal of RM College Saharsa, who shared, "It has no authentic history yet. Nothing has been officially written in this regard anywhere.". There are many legends behind the imposition of the Khan title. They say that our ancestors were originally Upadhyayas who became Jhas. After this, they began to write Khan. Only those who are natives here use the surname Khan. Khan is a Maithil Brahmin surname from the Katyayana Gotra. All are children of sage Katyayana. Their origin is from the Kunjilwar Brahmin group. Basically, they are the ones who own the Khan surname. Cultural and Religious Harmony What further distings Bangaon is its culture of harmony in every sphere of religion. Though the village is majorly Brahmin oriented, it never had any record of the level of detestation towards religious values ever. During festival seasons like Holi, Diwali, and Janmashtami, the whole village celebrates together while contributions are received from the Muslim community. One of the most distinct festivals of the village is Ghumaur Holi. This festival, like Braj's famous Lathmar Holi, hosts thousands from all religious communities to celebrate Holi around the Devi temple in the village. Ghumaur Holi is being celebrated with much enthusiasm; a number of people mount themselves on others' shoulders and indulge in a playful competition, which turns out to be one of the region's most awaited events. Jitendra Kumar Khan, a local resident said, "Bangaon is no more a village. The number of people here is so huge that it looks rather a cluster of villages. There are 19 wards, and many different groups live here.". People of various origin live together, though marriage within the same gotra is not lawful or scripturally acceptable. Within the different gotras, marriage is quite common. The huge population makes it easy for people to get a good match within itself. Established in 1810, this is a tradition that talks of the open-heartedness of the village. While today, devotees of all different faiths throng to Holi celebrations, it talks of long heritage of secularism in Bangaon. Even the state government has declared Ghumaur Holi as an official festival, which speaks volumes for its cultural significance. The Dharma Sabha: A Pillar of Unity Perhaps the longest is the Dharma Sabha, a religious congregation held every Sunday without any interruption for 133 years. Several major events, including the 1984 flood and the 2008 Kusha tragedy, could not break the Dharma Sabha tradition. The assembly represents a meeting place for scholars and laypeople alike to concentrate on religious, cultural, and social discourse. Dharma Sabha has now become a symbol of integrity in the village, wherein members from various religious congregations assemble, discuss matters, and enhance the reputation of the village for communal harmony. Bangaon: A Learning and Developmental Village It is not only an exceptionally culturally rich place but also a learning hub. More than 17-18 individuals from the village are IAS or IPS officers who have bagged administrative positions all over India. The village has thus taken a unique place in the educational landscape of the country, and the success incites pride amongst the residents, mainly because education is given so much importance and with great passion in the village. In fact, Bangaon is known as "Kosi ka Kashi" because of its great contribution toward education and the importance it holds in Kosi. The village has seen countless scholars through higher education in the state as well as outside the country. Agriculture and Festivals: A Glimpse of Village Life Agriculture is part of the daily routine of Bangaon. Paddy is the most conventional crop grown in the picturesque fertile Kosi river basin village. The crops mainly included are Dhaan (paddy), Makai (maize), Gehu (wheat), and Moong (lentils). The main crop is paddy, followed by maize, and a few farmers grow Garma Dhaan that are varieties specifically suited to summer farming. The mid-November date of paddy harvest coincides with some of the most important Hindu festivals, namely Durga Puja and Diwali. This time also marks the season of fresh Dhaan, which is either cooked or flattened into Chura and then mixed with jaggery (Shakkar/Cheeni) and curd (Dahi) to create the traditional delicacy. Between Diwali and Chhath, the other major festival, Bhardootiya or Bhai Dooj is another great festival in Bangaon, in which brothers go to meet their sisters. It is also the time when paddy, freshly harvested, is shared among the families for the community to bloom. Conclusion: A Village of Legacy and Harmony Bangaon marks a great example of cultural continuity and religious harmony. From its peculiar tradition of surnaming with "Khan" to the impenetrable traditions of Dharma Sabha and Ghumaur Holi, this village offers an unusual look at the past but is replete with modernity's spirit. Success in education, a strong community feel, and rich agricultural traditions make Bangaon a microcosm of resilience and unity. Since the origin of the "Khan" surname remains unknown, it is still a proud heritage of the village. This connects the people from Bangaon to an important historical legacy, which they are still experiencing in their lives. ----- Syed Amjad Hussain is an Author and Independent Research scholar on Sufism and Islam. He is currently working on his book ‘Bihar Aur Sufivad, based on History of Sufism in Bihar. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/interfaith-dialogue/bangaon-ghumaur-holi-khan-surname-bihar-heritage/d/133762 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

One Of The Enemies Of Terrorism Is Humour

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 20 November 2024 Recently Haaretz, Israel's paper of record and the oldest continuously published newspaper in the country, quoted Saul Bellow's famous statement in the context of the ongoing conflict between Israel, Hamas and other 'terrorist' outfits: "One of the enemies of terrorism is humour. I don’t know why terrorists are not very good at it. Maybe they think that they don’t have time for it, that seriousness is what guarantees their seriousness, and seriousness, at least for them, entails insensibility." Here, Saul Bellow argues that humour serves as an adversary to terrorism. He ponders why terrorists seem to lack a sense of humour. Bellow suggests that perhaps terrorists believe they don't have the luxury of time for levity, as seriousness is essential to maintain their image of gravitas. For them, seriousness may be equated with insensitivity, a necessary element to perpetuate their acts of terror. Bellow implies that humour, on the other hand, has the power to disrupt the destructive mindset of terrorism by shedding light on its absurdity and challenging its seriousness. Thus, humour emerges as a potent tool in combating the dark forces of terrorism. So very true. We seem to have forgotten to laugh and banter. An Urdu short story writer put it succinctly, "Iss Daur Ne Insaan Se Uss Ki Hairat Aur Hansi Chheen Lee Hai " (This age has robbed us of our laughter and sense of astonishment). It seems as if a pall of gloom has descended on the whole world. Today, not just terrorists, all humans are devoid of laughter and humour. Humour sensitizes us. It's an antidote to all types and sizes of conflicts, small or big. Many religions often show god as someone stern and absolutely humourless. That's perhaps the reason why we're living in a completely humourless and violent world. When we dare not endow god with laughter, how can we expect laughter and merriment in our lives? All the miseries in the world are because of our flawed perception of god as a humourless being who punishes those who grin. To quote a Hindi-Urdu poet, "Itna Bhi Sanjeeda Nahin Khuda/ Hansta Hai Woh Bhi Yada-Kada" (God is not that serious/ He too laughs at times). The Buddha once told his favourite disciple Anand that the main reason to militate against the organized religion and its ritualistic paraphernalia was that, "I saw no smile and no laughter in a religion. This suffocated me. "" Only with a laugh, you tide over the toughness of life, " the Buddha further explained. Laughter is the celestial music of the Kaainaat, universe, and Arq-e-Wajood, an elixir of existence. Rumi saw god's smile in a streak of blitzkrieg in the sky: Barq-Un-Falak, Tabassum-E-Khuda Ast. The concept of laughing Buddha in Feng Shui (always pronounced as Fung Shoi ) came into existence long ago. In the Pitakas, scriptures of Buddhism, and Jataka traditions, the Buddha is known as Smithaasya, smiling in a beatific manner. Nowhere will you see a Buddha idol with an ashen face despite the Buddha calling pain the core of human life and leaving the world in search of the ultimate Truth. That's the kernel of life: smile, laugh and also put a smile on your god's otherwise emotionless, blank face. He wants to laugh. Once laughter or humour is spiritualised and religiously consecrated, the violence in the world will automatically lose its sting and intensity. Laughter defangs the serpent of aggression, acrimony, antagonism and all that's acidic and acerbic in this world. So, laugh to your heart's content. Men have already shed more tears than all the waters lying in the great oceans. ---- A regular columnist for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to the world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/spiritual-meditations/enemies-terrorism-humour/d/133760 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

When Beijing Hammers Myanmarese Aspiration!

By Nava Thakuria, New Age Islam 20 November 2024 China’s ruling Communist party knows how to deal with a military regime along with the pro-democracy armed forces reflecting the aspiration of common people and Beijing has played the tricks in Myanmar (also known as Burma/Brahmadesh). The giant neighbour remains supportive to various batches of military rulers in the southeast Asian country and at the same time Beijing ensures goodwill to many anti-junta ethnic armed outfits. But lately, Beijing’s increasingly overt alliance with the junta has been termed as an obstacle to Myanmar’s democracy by an umbrella forum of pro-democracy organisations working for the people of Myanmar. Progressive Voice in its recent weekly briefing also stated that in lending false legitimacy to the junta and aiding mass atrocity crimes, China’s sphere of influence over Myanmar’s affairs only reflects its neo-colonial agenda. The Progressive Voice statement however affirmed that Beijing is placing a sure-to-lose bet on the collapsing junta against the people’s unprecedented nationwide and collective efforts to dismantle the military and establish a federal democracy. The forum cited the recent meeting of Myanmar junta chief Min Aung Hlaing with Chinese Premier Li Qiang on 6 November during his visit to the neighbouring country. The junta chief’s first high-profile visit coincided with his attendance at the two-day Greater Mekong Subregion summit in Kunming along with the representatives from Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. During a meeting with the junta leader, the Chinese Premier reiterated that Beijing supports Myanmar in advancing the political reconciliation and transformation. Li Qiang also stated that stability in northern Myanmar is crucial and China reaffirms the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Myanmar and strongly opposes any actions that harm the interests of Myanmar. “China’s open support for the military junta shows its prioritization of own influence and interests over the lives and democratic aspirations of Myanmar’s 55 million people. This support goes beyond diplomatic handshakes and it directly worsens the already dire human rights and humanitarian crisis in Myanmar,” said Khin Ohmar of Progressive Voice, adding that in October 2024, China’s abrupt decision to close its border with Myanmar choked off essential supplies and vital lifelines for civilians and resistance forces alike. The closure has cut off the supply of food, medicine, and other critical resources, intensifying the people’s suffering particularly in northern border areas, stated the pro-democracy activist. By enforcing this border lockdown, Beijing is directly aiding the junta, isolating Myanmar’s people from desperately needed resources, and leaving them more vulnerable to the junta’s brutality, she asserted. Moreover with the closure of its border, China has been effectively replicating a brutal tactic, cutting Myanmar’s people from access to basic and critical resources for their livelihood, in an attempt to pressure resistance forces to stop their fast-growing operations. China’s moves are unmistakably oppressive measures that prop up a junta that has no chance to win over the nationwide revolutionary forces and continues to commit mass atrocity crimes against the people. The forum has rightly stated that being a permanent member of the UN Security Council, China is obliged to uphold international peace and security. Instead, its blatant support for the Myanmar junta undermines those responsibilities, enabling and endorsing the junta’s ongoing atrocities, including war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Probably it’s time for the international community to look into this episode seriously and hold China accountable for the assaults against Myanmar’s people. Moreover Beijing should be prevented from operating its harmful policies and actions on Myanmar. According to a dynamic human rights watchdog ALTSEAN-Burma, till 31 October 2024, Myanmar witnessed at least 38,315 armed clashes and attacks against civilians since 1 Feb 2021 military coup. There were at least 31,77,100 displaced people since the coup as the junta soldiers continued their violent crimes where thousands of Myanmar nationals have been killed and another few thousands sustain injuries. But the junta is slowly losing its space in the country even though its soldiers continue launching air strikes over the crowded towns & villages to terrorise the people. Within a year of ‘Operation 1027’, the junta had lost 85 towns (at least 2,500 important positions), where the ethnic groups and people’s defence forces emerged triumphant. China needs to be prevented from playing its politics with the fate and aspirations of Myanmar’s native population, where another important neighbour India should also adopt a pragmatic initiative. --- Nava Thakuria is an official representative of PEC in South & Southeast Asia URL: https://www.newageislam.com/current-affairs/beijing-hammers-myanmarese-aspiration/d/133758 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Hanbalism as a Restraint on Islamic Intellectual Inquiry

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 19 November 2024 Hanbalism, established by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), often ignites spirited debate within Islamic scholarship. Critics argue that its unwavering commitment to traditional texts can act as a double-edged sword, ensuring fidelity to foundational principles while stifling intellectual growth. By prioritizing scriptural literalism over rational exploration, Hanbalism is said to cultivate a rigid framework that risks overlooking the dynamic interplay of reason, culture, and historical context. This rigidity, critics contend, can lead to dogmatic interpretations, discouraging intellectual diversity and curtailing constructive dialogue on contemporary issues. Furthermore, the school’s pronounced emphasis on hadith and Quranic literalism is viewed by detractors as narrowing the interpretive lens, like focusing intently on individual stars while missing the broader constellation. This approach, they argue, often side-lines contextual and cultural considerations, potentially confining Islamic thought within a static mould. For these critics, such constraints render Hanbalism less adaptive to the evolving intellectual and societal challenges of the modern world. The Quranic Hermeneutics of Hanbalism The Quran is a treasure trove of wisdom, urging humanity to think critically, reflect deeply, and engage in intellectual reasoning. Its call to ponder creation, explore natural phenomena, and verify knowledge weaves a golden thread through its verses, inviting believers to unlock the doors of understanding. This profound emphasis is illustrated in verses such as: • Encouraging Understanding Through Divine Guidance: "He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, 'Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful." (Q. 2:31) This verse symbolizes the foundation of human intellect as a garden planted by divine hands. • Inviting Self-Reflection And Recognizing The Purpose Of Creation: "Among them are those who listen to you, but We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their ears deafness. And if they see every sign, they will not believe in it. Even when they come to you, arguing with you, those who disbelieve say, 'This is not but legends of the former peoples.'" (Q. 7:184) Like clouds obscuring the sun, heedlessness veils hearts from the light of understanding. • Asking Believers To Engage In Intellectual Reasoning: "So will you not reason?" (Q. 22:46) This simple yet profound question strikes like a bell, awakening minds from slumber. The Quran’s emphasis on reasoning is like a river carving its way through the landscape, nourishing critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and moral responsibility. Verses such as: • "Do not pursue that of which you have no knowledge. Indeed, the hearing, the sight, and the heart - about all those [one] will be questioned." (Q. 17:36) emphasize the importance of verifying knowledge, reminding believers to measure twice and cut once in their pursuit of understanding. • "Travel through the land and observe how He began creation. Then Allah will produce the final creation. Indeed, Allah, over all things, is competent." (Q. 29:20) encourages exploration of the natural world, as if the Earth itself were an open book waiting to be read. These verses underline Islam’s recognition of human intellectual potential as a ladder to deeper faith and a compass for navigating life’s complexities. Hanbalism and the Quran’s Intellectual Framework The Hanbali school of thought approached the Quran’s call for intellectual reasoning with a perspective that could be described as walking a tightrope between tradition and inquiry. While the Quran advocates for critical engagement with the world, Hanbalism’s strict adherence to textual literalism and rejection of speculative theology tightened the reins on the broader intellectual exploration encouraged by the Quran. Hanbalism sought to balance intellectual inquiry with the preservation of divine revelation and prophetic tradition. While recognizing the importance of reason, Hanbalites emphasized the need for caution and restraint in interpreting religious texts. One of the core principles of Hanbalism is the avoidance of speculative theology. Hanbalites believed that excessive speculation could lead to deviation from the true path of Islam. They encouraged believers to reflect on the Quran and Sunnah, but cautioned against allegorical interpretations that could obscure the intended meaning. Another key aspect of Hanbalism is the emphasis on the authority of the Prophet Muhammad and his teachings. The Sunnah, which consists of the Prophet's sayings and actions, is considered a vital source of guidance for Muslims. Hanbalites believe that the Sunnah provides a clear and authoritative interpretation of the Quran. By adhering to these principles, Hanbalism sought to maintain the purity and integrity of Islamic teachings. However, this approach has also been criticized for its rigidity and its reluctance to engage with new ideas and perspectives. Approach to Intellectual Reasoning The interpretation of the Quran has been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. Different schools of thought have emerged, each offering unique perspectives on the text and its application in contemporary life. Hanbalism, a traditionalist school of thought, emphasizes the importance of adhering to the literal meaning of the Quran and the Sunnah. Hanbalites prioritize textual preservation and seek to maintain the purity of Islamic tradition. They believe that the Quran and Sunnah provide clear guidance for all aspects of life, and that any deviation from these sources can lead to error and misguidance. In contrast, modern Islamic thinkers like Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol offer more nuanced and contextual interpretations of the Quran. They emphasize the importance of reason, critical thinking, and historical context in understanding the Quran's message. Abou El-Fadl, for instance, highlights the Quran's call for justice, compassion, and human rights. He argues that the Quran is not merely a book of rules and regulations, but a source of inspiration and guidance for addressing contemporary challenges. Mustafa Akyol, a Turkish Islamic scholar, advocates for a liberal and reformist interpretation of Islam. He emphasizes the importance of reconciling faith with reason and science. Akyol argues that the Quran encourages intellectual inquiry and critical thinking, and that it is not incompatible with modern values and aspirations. By examining the diverse perspectives of Hanbalism, Khaled Abou El-Fadl, and Mustafa Akyol, we can appreciate the rich and multifaceted nature of Islamic thought. While Hanbalism emphasizes the importance of tradition and textual authority, modern thinkers like Abou El-Fadl and Akyol highlight the need for a more nuanced and contextual understanding of the Quran. By engaging with these different approaches, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the depth and breadth of Islamic thought. Comparative Analysis Islamic scholarship boasts an impressive array of interpretations and methodologies. Hanbalism, alongside Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol, contributes meaningfully to this diversity, shedding new light on Quranic analysis and its real-world implications. Hanbalism, a traditionalist school of thought, prioritizes strict adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, seeking to preserve the pristine purity of Islamic teachings. Khaled Abou El-Fadl, a renowned Islamic scholar, emphasizes the importance of rational inquiry and contextual understanding, advocating for a dynamic and nuanced interpretation of Islamic texts. Mustafa Akyol, a contemporary thinker, champions a liberal and reformist approach to Islam, seeking to reconcile faith with modern values. Hanbalism relies heavily on traditional interpretations and scholarly consensus, often prioritizing textual literalism. Khaled Abou El-Fadl, on the other hand, employs a contextual and historical approach, considering the social and cultural factors that shaped the Quranic revelations. Mustafa Akyol, inspired by the rationalist tradition, advocates for a critical and evidence-based approach to interpreting Islamic texts. Hanbalism emphasizes the importance of following the footsteps of the pious predecessors, relying on their interpretations and rulings. Khaled Abou El-Fadl encourages a more open and inclusive approach, welcoming diverse perspectives and critical inquiry. Mustafa Akyol advocates for a rational and evidence-based approach, drawing on both Islamic sources and modern knowledge. Hanbalism tends to adopt a conservative and cautious tone, emphasizing the importance of preserving traditional values and practices. Khaled Abou El-Fadl's approach is marked by intellectual humility and a commitment to dialogue and understanding. Mustafa Akyol, on the other hand, is more assertive and reformist, advocating for a bold reinterpretation of Islamic teachings. These three figures represent different strands of Islamic thought, each offering unique perspectives on the Quran and its interpretation. By understanding their diverse approaches, we can appreciate the richness and complexity of Islamic intellectual tradition. The Rise of Wahhabism: A Radical Revival of Hanbalism The widespread impact of Wahhabism cannot be solely attributed to its doctrinal substance. Wahhabism drew heavily from the long-standing Hanbali Ahl al-Hadith movement in Islam, which was marked by its unwavering textualism and anti-rationalism. Similar to early Wahhabis, the Ahl al-Hadith considered Ash‘ari theology as deviant and heretical as Mu‘tazilism. Historically, the Mu‘tazila faced challenges not just from Hanbalism but also from the emergence of Ash‘arism, a refined intellectual tradition founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari (d. 936). Ashʿarism eventually became the backbone of Sunni Islam. By the eleventh century, Hanbalism had gained prominence as the official creed of the Abbasid Caliphate. Despite this, Hanbalism's numerical inferiority persisted, largely because it lacked sustained political patronage after the Abbasid decline in the tenth century. (Mouline, p.28). Nevertheless, it made significant inroads in regions like Damascus, Syria, and Palestine through the efforts of scholars such as Abu Salih Muflih and Abu al-Faraj al-Shirazi, who established key institutions and strengthened the school’s presence. (Mouline, p.33-34). The eighteenth century marked a significant revival of Hanbalism under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. His followers, known as Wahhabis, launched a militant campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which they criticized for its Sufi practices and perceived innovations. (Hodgson, p.181). With the emergence of Saudi Arabia, this selective Hanbalism, championed by Wahhabism, reshaped the Hanbali school’s trajectory. Not only did Saudi patronage rescue Hanbalism from obscurity, but it also turned Wahhabism into a dominant ideological force within Sunni puritan movements worldwide. Wahhabism’s strict interpretation of Islamic law and its binary worldview left little room for diversity or ethical nuance. This rigidity is epitomized by Ahmad ibn Hanbal’s own severe stances, such as refraining from eating watermelon due to the lack of precedent in Prophetic traditions and advising divorce for a husband’s failure to pray. (Valentine, p.22-23). The puritanical application of hadith as immutable law further exacerbates this rigidity, often resulting in laws based on single traditions and an uncritical reliance on sources like Sahih al-Bukhari. Such approaches, however, have faced criticism for promoting traditions that contradict reason, degrade women, or conflict with Qur’anic ethics. (Sardar, p.xi). The ideological core of Wahhabism rejects the rich history, culture, and intellectual traditions of Islamic civilizations as degenerate. It marginalizes dissent, particularly from women, who are denied basic rights and subjected to severe restrictions in Saudi society. This reductionist approach strips Islam of its pluralistic, ethical, and moral content, replacing it with an inflexible list of dos and don’ts. (Sardar, p.xi). The binary opposition between Hanbalism and other Islamic traditions, such as Sufism, further underscores the exclusivist tendencies of Wahhabism. While Sufism is celebrated for its adaptability and inclusiveness, Hanbalism is often portrayed as rigid and intolerant, emphasizing religious purity to the detriment of diversity. (Makdisi, p.61). Despite its limitations, Hanbalism's resurgence in the eighteenth century under Wahhabism highlighted its missionary dynamism. This revival paralleled earlier periods of Hanbali consolidation in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, underscoring the tradition’s capacity to assert itself when political conditions permitted. (Mouline, p.28). However, Wahhabism’s unflinching literalism and suppression of intellectual and cultural diversity remain points of contention within the broader discourse on Islamic thought and reform. In modern times, Islam’s reformers often face accusations of Mu‘tazilism, as critics invoke figures like Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who memorized thousands of hadiths and prioritized divine will over philosophical inquiry. (Bellaigue, p.xxx). This enduring division between fundamentalism and philosophy, established as early as the ninth century, continues to shape debates within Islamic theology and law. Through its radical reinterpretation of Hanbalism, Wahhabism represents a profound departure from the pluralistic and dynamic history of Islam. By denying the complexity and diversity of Islamic traditions, it reduces the faith to a narrow and authoritarian framework, raising critical questions about its long-term impact on Muslim societies and the global Islamic narrative. The Quran's emphasis on intellectual reasoning shines as a perpetual guiding light within Islamic tradition. Hanbalism carefully balances reason with adherence to established customs, while contemporary scholars like Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol pioneer innovative interpretations, tackling modern issues. This rich tapestry of perspectives showcases Islam's timeless intellectual heritage and its universal applicability. Bibliography Bellaigue, Christopher D, The Islamic Enlightenment, The Struggle Between Faith and Reason, London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2017 El-Fadl, Khaled Abou, Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women, Oxford, Oneworld Publications, 2001 El-Fadl, Khaled Abou, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, New York, HarperOne, 2005 Hodgson, Marshall G. S, The Venture of Islam, vol. 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977 Makdisi, George, “The Hanbali School and Sufism,” in Humanıora Islamica, vol. 2, The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1974 Mouline, Nabil, The Clerics of Islam, Translated by Ethan S. Rundell, London: Yale University Press, 2014 Mustafa Akyol, Islam Without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2011 Sardar, Ziauddin, Forward to the book, Simon Ross Valentine, Force and Fanaticism Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, London: Hurst & Company, 2015 Valentine, Simon Ross, Force and Fanaticism Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, Londdon: Hurst & Company, 2015 ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/islamic-ideology/hanbalism-restraint-islamic-intellectual/d/133755 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

A Heinous Crime: The Tragedy of a Pregnant Woman's Murder in Sialkot and Islam's Condemnation of Such Acts

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 19 November 2024 Hanbalism, established by Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), often ignites spirited debate within Islamic scholarship. Critics argue that its unwavering commitment to traditional texts can act as a double-edged sword, ensuring fidelity to foundational principles while stifling intellectual growth. By prioritizing scriptural literalism over rational exploration, Hanbalism is said to cultivate a rigid framework that risks overlooking the dynamic interplay of reason, culture, and historical context. This rigidity, critics contend, can lead to dogmatic interpretations, discouraging intellectual diversity and curtailing constructive dialogue on contemporary issues. Furthermore, the school’s pronounced emphasis on hadith and Quranic literalism is viewed by detractors as narrowing the interpretive lens, like focusing intently on individual stars while missing the broader constellation. This approach, they argue, often side-lines contextual and cultural considerations, potentially confining Islamic thought within a static mould. For these critics, such constraints render Hanbalism less adaptive to the evolving intellectual and societal challenges of the modern world. The Quranic Hermeneutics of Hanbalism The Quran is a treasure trove of wisdom, urging humanity to think critically, reflect deeply, and engage in intellectual reasoning. Its call to ponder creation, explore natural phenomena, and verify knowledge weaves a golden thread through its verses, inviting believers to unlock the doors of understanding. This profound emphasis is illustrated in verses such as: • Encouraging Understanding Through Divine Guidance: "He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, 'Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful." (Q. 2:31) This verse symbolizes the foundation of human intellect as a garden planted by divine hands. • Inviting Self-Reflection And Recognizing The Purpose Of Creation: "Among them are those who listen to you, but We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their ears deafness. And if they see every sign, they will not believe in it. Even when they come to you, arguing with you, those who disbelieve say, 'This is not but legends of the former peoples.'" (Q. 7:184) Like clouds obscuring the sun, heedlessness veils hearts from the light of understanding. • Asking Believers To Engage In Intellectual Reasoning: "So will you not reason?" (Q. 22:46) This simple yet profound question strikes like a bell, awakening minds from slumber. The Quran’s emphasis on reasoning is like a river carving its way through the landscape, nourishing critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and moral responsibility. Verses such as: • "Do not pursue that of which you have no knowledge. Indeed, the hearing, the sight, and the heart - about all those [one] will be questioned." (Q. 17:36) emphasize the importance of verifying knowledge, reminding believers to measure twice and cut once in their pursuit of understanding. • "Travel through the land and observe how He began creation. Then Allah will produce the final creation. Indeed, Allah, over all things, is competent." (Q. 29:20) encourages exploration of the natural world, as if the Earth itself were an open book waiting to be read. These verses underline Islam’s recognition of human intellectual potential as a ladder to deeper faith and a compass for navigating life’s complexities. Hanbalism and the Quran’s Intellectual Framework The Hanbali school of thought approached the Quran’s call for intellectual reasoning with a perspective that could be described as walking a tightrope between tradition and inquiry. While the Quran advocates for critical engagement with the world, Hanbalism’s strict adherence to textual literalism and rejection of speculative theology tightened the reins on the broader intellectual exploration encouraged by the Quran. Hanbalism sought to balance intellectual inquiry with the preservation of divine revelation and prophetic tradition. While recognizing the importance of reason, Hanbalites emphasized the need for caution and restraint in interpreting religious texts. One of the core principles of Hanbalism is the avoidance of speculative theology. Hanbalites believed that excessive speculation could lead to deviation from the true path of Islam. They encouraged believers to reflect on the Quran and Sunnah, but cautioned against allegorical interpretations that could obscure the intended meaning. Another key aspect of Hanbalism is the emphasis on the authority of the Prophet Muhammad and his teachings. The Sunnah, which consists of the Prophet's sayings and actions, is considered a vital source of guidance for Muslims. Hanbalites believe that the Sunnah provides a clear and authoritative interpretation of the Quran. By adhering to these principles, Hanbalism sought to maintain the purity and integrity of Islamic teachings. However, this approach has also been criticized for its rigidity and its reluctance to engage with new ideas and perspectives. Approach to Intellectual Reasoning The interpretation of the Quran has been a subject of scholarly debate for centuries. Different schools of thought have emerged, each offering unique perspectives on the text and its application in contemporary life. Hanbalism, a traditionalist school of thought, emphasizes the importance of adhering to the literal meaning of the Quran and the Sunnah. Hanbalites prioritize textual preservation and seek to maintain the purity of Islamic tradition. They believe that the Quran and Sunnah provide clear guidance for all aspects of life, and that any deviation from these sources can lead to error and misguidance. In contrast, modern Islamic thinkers like Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol offer more nuanced and contextual interpretations of the Quran. They emphasize the importance of reason, critical thinking, and historical context in understanding the Quran's message. Abou El-Fadl, for instance, highlights the Quran's call for justice, compassion, and human rights. He argues that the Quran is not merely a book of rules and regulations, but a source of inspiration and guidance for addressing contemporary challenges. Mustafa Akyol, a Turkish Islamic scholar, advocates for a liberal and reformist interpretation of Islam. He emphasizes the importance of reconciling faith with reason and science. Akyol argues that the Quran encourages intellectual inquiry and critical thinking, and that it is not incompatible with modern values and aspirations. By examining the diverse perspectives of Hanbalism, Khaled Abou El-Fadl, and Mustafa Akyol, we can appreciate the rich and multifaceted nature of Islamic thought. While Hanbalism emphasizes the importance of tradition and textual authority, modern thinkers like Abou El-Fadl and Akyol highlight the need for a more nuanced and contextual understanding of the Quran. By engaging with these different approaches, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the depth and breadth of Islamic thought. Comparative Analysis Islamic scholarship boasts an impressive array of interpretations and methodologies. Hanbalism, alongside Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol, contributes meaningfully to this diversity, shedding new light on Quranic analysis and its real-world implications. Hanbalism, a traditionalist school of thought, prioritizes strict adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, seeking to preserve the pristine purity of Islamic teachings. Khaled Abou El-Fadl, a renowned Islamic scholar, emphasizes the importance of rational inquiry and contextual understanding, advocating for a dynamic and nuanced interpretation of Islamic texts. Mustafa Akyol, a contemporary thinker, champions a liberal and reformist approach to Islam, seeking to reconcile faith with modern values. Hanbalism relies heavily on traditional interpretations and scholarly consensus, often prioritizing textual literalism. Khaled Abou El-Fadl, on the other hand, employs a contextual and historical approach, considering the social and cultural factors that shaped the Quranic revelations. Mustafa Akyol, inspired by the rationalist tradition, advocates for a critical and evidence-based approach to interpreting Islamic texts. Hanbalism emphasizes the importance of following the footsteps of the pious predecessors, relying on their interpretations and rulings. Khaled Abou El-Fadl encourages a more open and inclusive approach, welcoming diverse perspectives and critical inquiry. Mustafa Akyol advocates for a rational and evidence-based approach, drawing on both Islamic sources and modern knowledge. Hanbalism tends to adopt a conservative and cautious tone, emphasizing the importance of preserving traditional values and practices. Khaled Abou El-Fadl's approach is marked by intellectual humility and a commitment to dialogue and understanding. Mustafa Akyol, on the other hand, is more assertive and reformist, advocating for a bold reinterpretation of Islamic teachings. These three figures represent different strands of Islamic thought, each offering unique perspectives on the Quran and its interpretation. By understanding their diverse approaches, we can appreciate the richness and complexity of Islamic intellectual tradition. The Rise of Wahhabism: A Radical Revival of Hanbalism The widespread impact of Wahhabism cannot be solely attributed to its doctrinal substance. Wahhabism drew heavily from the long-standing Hanbali Ahl al-Hadith movement in Islam, which was marked by its unwavering textualism and anti-rationalism. Similar to early Wahhabis, the Ahl al-Hadith considered Ash‘ari theology as deviant and heretical as Mu‘tazilism. Historically, the Mu‘tazila faced challenges not just from Hanbalism but also from the emergence of Ash‘arism, a refined intellectual tradition founded by Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari (d. 936). Ashʿarism eventually became the backbone of Sunni Islam. By the eleventh century, Hanbalism had gained prominence as the official creed of the Abbasid Caliphate. Despite this, Hanbalism's numerical inferiority persisted, largely because it lacked sustained political patronage after the Abbasid decline in the tenth century. (Mouline, p.28). Nevertheless, it made significant inroads in regions like Damascus, Syria, and Palestine through the efforts of scholars such as Abu Salih Muflih and Abu al-Faraj al-Shirazi, who established key institutions and strengthened the school’s presence. (Mouline, p.33-34). The eighteenth century marked a significant revival of Hanbalism under Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. His followers, known as Wahhabis, launched a militant campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which they criticized for its Sufi practices and perceived innovations. (Hodgson, p.181). With the emergence of Saudi Arabia, this selective Hanbalism, championed by Wahhabism, reshaped the Hanbali school’s trajectory. Not only did Saudi patronage rescue Hanbalism from obscurity, but it also turned Wahhabism into a dominant ideological force within Sunni puritan movements worldwide. Wahhabism’s strict interpretation of Islamic law and its binary worldview left little room for diversity or ethical nuance. This rigidity is epitomized by Ahmad ibn Hanbal’s own severe stances, such as refraining from eating watermelon due to the lack of precedent in Prophetic traditions and advising divorce for a husband’s failure to pray. (Valentine, p.22-23). The puritanical application of hadith as immutable law further exacerbates this rigidity, often resulting in laws based on single traditions and an uncritical reliance on sources like Sahih al-Bukhari. Such approaches, however, have faced criticism for promoting traditions that contradict reason, degrade women, or conflict with Qur’anic ethics. (Sardar, p.xi). The ideological core of Wahhabism rejects the rich history, culture, and intellectual traditions of Islamic civilizations as degenerate. It marginalizes dissent, particularly from women, who are denied basic rights and subjected to severe restrictions in Saudi society. This reductionist approach strips Islam of its pluralistic, ethical, and moral content, replacing it with an inflexible list of dos and don’ts. (Sardar, p.xi). The binary opposition between Hanbalism and other Islamic traditions, such as Sufism, further underscores the exclusivist tendencies of Wahhabism. While Sufism is celebrated for its adaptability and inclusiveness, Hanbalism is often portrayed as rigid and intolerant, emphasizing religious purity to the detriment of diversity. (Makdisi, p.61). Despite its limitations, Hanbalism's resurgence in the eighteenth century under Wahhabism highlighted its missionary dynamism. This revival paralleled earlier periods of Hanbali consolidation in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, underscoring the tradition’s capacity to assert itself when political conditions permitted. (Mouline, p.28). However, Wahhabism’s unflinching literalism and suppression of intellectual and cultural diversity remain points of contention within the broader discourse on Islamic thought and reform. In modern times, Islam’s reformers often face accusations of Mu‘tazilism, as critics invoke figures like Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who memorized thousands of hadiths and prioritized divine will over philosophical inquiry. (Bellaigue, p.xxx). This enduring division between fundamentalism and philosophy, established as early as the ninth century, continues to shape debates within Islamic theology and law. Through its radical reinterpretation of Hanbalism, Wahhabism represents a profound departure from the pluralistic and dynamic history of Islam. By denying the complexity and diversity of Islamic traditions, it reduces the faith to a narrow and authoritarian framework, raising critical questions about its long-term impact on Muslim societies and the global Islamic narrative. The Quran's emphasis on intellectual reasoning shines as a perpetual guiding light within Islamic tradition. Hanbalism carefully balances reason with adherence to established customs, while contemporary scholars like Khaled Abou El-Fadl and Mustafa Akyol pioneer innovative interpretations, tackling modern issues. This rich tapestry of perspectives showcases Islam's timeless intellectual heritage and its universal applicability. Bibliography Bellaigue, Christopher D, The Islamic Enlightenment, The Struggle Between Faith and Reason, London: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2017 El-Fadl, Khaled Abou, Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women, Oxford, Oneworld Publications, 2001 El-Fadl, Khaled Abou, The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, New York, HarperOne, 2005 Hodgson, Marshall G. S, The Venture of Islam, vol. 3, The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977 Makdisi, George, “The Hanbali School and Sufism,” in Humanıora Islamica, vol. 2, The Hague and Paris: Mouton, 1974 Mouline, Nabil, The Clerics of Islam, Translated by Ethan S. Rundell, London: Yale University Press, 2014 Mustafa Akyol, Islam Without Extremes: A Muslim Case for Liberty, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2011 Sardar, Ziauddin, Forward to the book, Simon Ross Valentine, Force and Fanaticism Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, London: Hurst & Company, 2015 Valentine, Simon Ross, Force and Fanaticism Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, Londdon: Hurst & Company, 2015 ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/islamic-ideology/hanbalism-restraint-islamic-intellectual/d/133755 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Elections In Maharashtra: An Unmitigated Political Chaos

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 19 November 2024 "Sooba-e-Maharashtra Ka Har Shakhs Iss Vaqt Pesho-Pas Mein Hai Ki Iss Intikhaab Mein Kaun Vaaqai Qaabil-e-Intikhaab Hai...." Editorial in a national Urdu daily (Everyone in Maharashtra is in a dilemma as to who's worth-electing in this election) Maharashtra is in the throes of election fever and being based in Poona, yours truly has a ringside view of this complete charade. The state will go to the polls tomorrow on November 20. Poona and Bombay are the epicentres of all political movements, missions and also mishaps. At the moment, perhaps the dirtiest politics is being played in Maharashtra by pandering to the local and ethnic sentiments of Maharashtrians. Those, living outside Maharashtra, aren't aware of the kind of caste and nationalistic politics is played in this state by all political outfits, esp. by the current political dispensation. Maharashtra is extremely caste and creed-centric and the political candidates are projected on the basis of their caste and creed. It's indeed some sort of a Vote Jihad, though these people are unaware of the meaning and import of a profound word like Jihad. Maharashtrians tend to get swayed by caste politics and Shivaji whom they call Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. In all practicality, Shivaji is a presiding deity of the state. Though I read this in an Urdu newspaper, there's no denying the fact that candidates and their supporters are motivating voters by stoking their ethnocentric and religious sentiments and also by invoking Shivaji at the drop of a hat. Voters are also to be blamed for not applying their brains. Because of the political instability for a long time, Maharashtra is in a very bad shape. The current political dispensation is introducing Laadli Bahan, Laadli this, Laadli that and all weird temptations to entice the voters. No one is bothered that electricity per unit is the costliest in Maharashtra. Political parties are using the hard-earned money of the masses to please a large section of people who could prove to be the game-changers in the ensuing hustings. Every candidate is covertly or overtly distributing money to ensure his/her victory. As you all know, the general tenor in India is that Muslims are not in favour of BJP and they prefer Congress, this political bias is being used very cleverly by all the parties to their advantage. This is obvious in Maharashtra as well. Otherwise also, the Muslims have always been the pawns on India's political chessboard. This type of polarisation and prejudice is unthinkable. The so-called democracy has already been relegated to mild autocracy in India. It'll soon degenerate into downright despotism. Let's see what transpires in Maharashtra in the days to come. Though I've a Panglossian attitude towards everything, I ain't very optimistic about the outcome of this election. We're already in the soup. ---- A regular columnist for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to the world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/current-affairs/elections-maharashtra-political-chaos/d/133750 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Understanding Sufism: A Comprehensive Overview

By Sahil Razvi, New Age Islam 18 November 2024 Sufism Is A Mystical Path In Islam, Emphasizing Inner Purity And Divine Closeness. It Includes Four Stages Of Spiritual Development And Has Influenced Islamic Thought Through Major Figures And Diverse Sufi Orders Main Points: 1. -Definition: Sufism is the spiritual path in Islam, focusing on soul purification and closeness to Allah. 2. -Origins: The term "Sufi" is debated, derived either from wool (suf) or the Greek "Sophia" (wisdom). 3. -Four Stages: Shari'ah, Tariqah, Haqiqah, and Ma'rifah are the key stages in Sufi practice. 4. -Sufi Orders: Major Sufi orders include Qadriya, Naqshbandiya, and Chishtiya. 5. -Influential Figures: Renowned Sufis like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Shah Waliullah shaped Islamic spirituality in South Asia. ------- Sufism, often referred to as the mystical or spiritual aspect of Islam, is a path dedicated to achieving closeness to Allah through inner purification and spiritual development. The term "Sufism" is derived from the Arabic word "Sufi," which traditionally refers to those who practice this form of spirituality. Many associate the term with the woolen garments (suf) that early practitioners wore, although some scholars trace its origins to the Greek word "Sophia," meaning wisdom. In Islamic thought, Sufism is understood as a method of inner transformation, guiding practitioners toward the purification of the soul and attaining divine proximity. The Terminology and Origins of Sufism The word "Sufism" itself is often debated among scholars, especially regarding its linguistic roots. Some believe it originates from "suf," the Arabic term for wool, as early mystics would wear coarse woollen garments as a symbol of their renunciation of worldly pleasures. Another suggestion is that it comes from the Greek term "Sophia," meaning wisdom, implying a deep pursuit of divine knowledge. There is also an argument that the term could be connected to the Arabic word "Suffah," referring to a group of people in the pre-Islamic era who lived in the service of the Ka'bah, but this link is not universally accepted. The Relationship of Sufism to Islam Sufism is often seen as an integral part of Islam by those who practice it, with many believing that it aligns perfectly with the Quran and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Sufis themselves define their path as a spiritual practice rooted in the principles of the Quran and Sunnah, focusing on the purification of the soul (Tazkiyah al-Nafs) and the cultivation of excellence in worship (Ihsan), as described in the Hadith. However, Sufism has also been a subject of contention within the Muslim community. While some scholars and practitioners argue that Sufism is a manifestation of true Islamic spirituality, others, particularly from the more orthodox schools of thought, view it as a deviation from the core teachings of Islam. These critics argue that some practices and beliefs within Sufism may contradict or even oppose established Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh). This divergence has led to significant debates and divisions within the Muslim world regarding the place of Sufism in Islam. The Four Stages of Sufism Sufism is traditionally understood as consisting of four distinct stages that guide the practitioner on their spiritual journey: 1. Shari'ah (The Law): The foundation of Islamic practice, including adherence to the basic tenets of Islam such as prayer, fasting, charity, and pilgrimage. For Sufis, Shari'ah serves as the essential framework for moral and spiritual conduct. . Tariqah (The Path): The specific spiritual practices and methodologies employed by Sufis to achieve closeness to Allah. This includes regular meditation, recitation of divine names (dhikr), and seeking the guidance of a spiritual master (Sheikh). 3. Haqiqah (The Truth): The stage where a Sufi seeks to experience the deeper truths of existence and the nature of Allah. This involves a profound understanding of the divine and the inner mysteries of creation. 4. Ma'rifah (The Knowledge): The highest level of spiritual enlightenment, where the practitioner achieves direct knowledge of Allah and experiences a deep union with the divine presence. Sufism in the Indian Subcontinent The history of Sufism in the Indian subcontinent is marked by the contributions of many notable Sufi saints who played a pivotal role in spreading Islam through their teachings, character, and spiritual practices. Some of the most renowned figures in South Asian Sufism include: Shah Rukn-e-Alam, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Baba Fariduddin Ganj Shakar, Nizamuddin Aulia, Sultan Saki Sarwar, Data Ganj Bakhsh Hajweri, Shah Waliullah Muhaddith, Mujaddid Alf Thani Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi. These figures, among many others, are celebrated for their remarkable contributions to Islam and their efforts in promoting peace, tolerance, and spirituality. Through their teachings and acts of kindness, they attracted a vast number of people to the path of righteousness and piety, transcending cultural and ethnic boundaries. The Major Sufi Orders (Silsilas) Sufism is organized into various orders or "Silsilas," each with its own unique practices and methods. Some of the most well-known Sufi orders include: Qadriya, Naqshbandiya, Suhrawardiyya and Chishtiya. Each order has its own distinct approach to spiritual practice, but they all emphasize the cultivation of inner purity, devotion to Allah, and the guidance of a spiritual master. Important Sufi Literature Sufism has produced a rich body of literature that serves as a guide for spiritual seekers. Some of the most influential books in Sufi literature include: Al-Qushayri's Risalah Qushayriya, Shaykh Abdul Qadir Jilani's Futuh al-Ghaib and Fath al-Rabbani, Data Ganj Bakhsh's Kashf al-Mahjub, Shaykh Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi's Awarif al-Ma'arif, Imam Ghazali's Ihya' al-‘Ulum, Alchemy of Happiness (Kimiya-yi Sa'adat), and Minhaj al-'Abidin, Ibn Arabi's Fusus al-Hikam and Futuhat al-Makkiyah. These works not only provide insight into the philosophy and practices of Sufism but also serve as a source of spiritual inspiration for countless followers across the world. Sufism represents a deep and intricate aspect of Islamic spirituality. While it has sparked significant debate within the Muslim community, with some viewing it as a deviation from orthodox teachings, others see it as the essence of Islamic mysticism, grounded in the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah. The contributions of Sufi saints throughout history, particularly in the Indian subcontinent, have had a lasting impact on the spiritual and cultural landscape of the Muslim world. Whether one agrees or disagrees with Sufism, its role in the spread of Islam, its teachings of peace, and its focus on inner spiritual growth remain undeniable. Sufism continues to inspire millions of people worldwide, guiding them on a path of self-purification, spiritual enlightenment, and closeness to the Divine. ----- A regular contributor to New Age Islam, Sahil Razvi is a research scholar specialising in Sufism and Islamic History. He is an alumnus of Jamia Millia Islamia. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/islamic-ideology/understanding-sufism-comprehensive-overview/d/133742 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Faith and Reason in Early Islam: Lessons from the Mu’tazila Debate

By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof, New Age Islam 18 November 2024 If you ask a devout Muslim today about their religious identity, the response is likely to align with the broad categories of Sunni or Shiite. Among Sunnis, many follow one of the four established schools of jurisprudence—Hanafi, Shafi, Maliki, or Hanbali—while others, like contemporary literalists, claim adherence to the "Salaf," emulating the first three generations of Islam. However, this seemingly straightforward framework often conceals a richer reality: the early Islamic era was a far more diverse and nuanced tapestry than modern binaries suggest. The so-called "golden age" of the Salaf was anything but uniform. It flourished with a multitude of intellectual traditions, including the now largely forgotten legal methodologies of scholars like al-Awzai, al-Thawri, and al-Zahiri, whose schools eventually faded into obscurity. During this period, the Mu’tazila, pioneers of Kalam (Islamic theology), also emerged with ideas that shone both as a source of enlightenment and as a trigger for controversy. Today, the Mu’tazila are often dismissed as heretics within many Sunni circles, their intellectual contributions overshadowed by centuries of orthodoxy. Yet their influence is undeniable, like an invisible hand shaping Islamic thought, particularly in the rejection of anthropomorphic descriptions of God. Their legacy, though understated, has left a lasting imprint on Islamic theology. Faith and Reason: A Harmonious Partnership For the Mu’tazila, faith and reason were not rivals in opposition but complementary forces, two wings enabling the soul to soar toward divine understanding. Their rationalist approach was not the defiance of heretics but a profound belief that divine revelation and human reason were intricately intertwined. To them, reason was a God-given compass, essential for navigating moral and spiritual landscapes. They perceived moral truths as gems waiting to be discovered—reason unearthed them, while revelation affirmed them. Their perspective treated reason as a finely tuned instrument, creating harmony with faith rather than discord. Critics of this view dismissed it with the maxim, “fallible humans cannot judge the infallible,” reducing reason to an unreliable tool, unfit to grasp divine wisdom. The Theological Arena The intellectual debates of early Islam were as dynamic as a battlefield of ideologies. The Mu’tazila, for instance, vehemently opposed the concept of predestination, which they viewed as a tool for despots to justify oppression. In their eyes, humans were free agents, responsible for their actions, steering their destinies like sailors navigating turbulent seas with the guidance of divine revelation and human reason. Similarly, their assertion that the Quran was "created" rather than co-eternal with God ignited fierce theological disputes. To their opponents, this idea was incendiary, but to the Mu’tazila, it was a necessary defence of God's absolute oneness. Their reasoning was precise and surgical, seeking to cut through dogma to preserve the essence of divine truth. The Euthyphro Dilemma and Ethical Objectivism Plato’s "Euthyphro" dialogue, which explores the nature of morality, poses the timeless dilemma: Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is inherently good? This question deeply resonates with debates on morality and divine command theory. The Mu’tazila leaned toward ethical objectivism, arguing that moral truths exist independently of divine command. For them, divine law reflects universal ethical principles rather than creating them. For instance, murder is inherently wrong, and its prohibition in Sharia merely acknowledges this pre-existing truth. To the Mu’tazila, moral truths were akin to celestial lights, guiding humanity regardless of human recognition. Their interpretation of Sharia illuminated these truths, presenting divine law as a beacon to navigate the moral universe. Reason vs. Literalism: The Hadith Debate Nowhere was the clash between reason and literalism more pronounced than in the debate over hadith. The Mu’tazila, proponents of reason, scrutinized hadith like jewellers inspecting gems, accepting only those that passed the test of both authenticity and ethical coherence. In contrast, their opponents, the Ahl al-Hadith, treated hadith as sacrosanct treasures, valuing their chain of transmission over their content. Consider the infamous hadith that condemned children of polytheists to hellfire. To the Mu’tazila, this claim was as absurd as a square circle, for it violated the innate moral compass bestowed upon humanity by God. They countered with the belief that God’s justice was immutable and could never permit such injustice. This debate was like a tug-of-war between two paradigms — one pulling toward the shores of reason and the other anchored in the deep waters of textual literalism. The Fall of Reason and the Rise of Orthodoxy The story of the Mu’tazila is a cautionary tale of intellectual vigour succumbing to political might. The turning point came with Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari’s dramatic conversion from Mutazilite rationalism to Hanbali literalism. His newfound stance, which emphasized submission over inquiry, spread like wildfire, reshaping Sunni orthodoxy. By the 11th century, the Mu’tazila were not merely defeated but erased, their ideas relegated to the shadows. The Qadiri Creed, a state-sponsored manifesto, sealed their fate, branding their rationalism as a heresy punishable by death. The Mu’tazila became like fallen stars — once luminous but now obscured by the gathering clouds of prevailing orthodoxy. Revisiting the Mu’tazilah’s Legacy Despite their fall, the Mutazila’s legacy endures, like embers smouldering beneath the ashes. Their emphasis on reason and ethical objectivism continues to inspire contemporary scholars, such as Khaled Abou El Fadl, who calls for “conscientious thinking” in religion. He echoes the Mu’tazilah’s insistence that faith should not be a blindfold but a lens through which moral clarity is achieved. Ahmad al-Raysuni, too, laments the intellectual ossification that followed the Mu’tazilah’s defeat, likening it to a ship that abandoned its compass to sail aimlessly on a sea of dogma. He calls for a revival of rationalism within Islamic thought, urging Muslims to reconcile their faith with universal ethics in the face of modern challenges. Engaging with the Divine Islamic tradition emphasizes the profound interplay between human agency and divine will, presenting life as some journey rich with possibilities for spiritual and intellectual growth. These possibilities are not merely the result of God's compassion and mercy but are actualized through humanity's engagement with the divine. This dynamic interplay involves moments of doubt and certitude, trial and error, disappointment and triumph, reflecting a deeply relational faith. In Islam, reasoning with the divine—through prayer, reflection, and action—serves as a vehicle for cultivating a reciprocated love of God. This process allows believers to achieve a state of peace and tranquillity, aligning their lives with divine purpose. Rationality and reasonableness are essential tools for navigating both spiritual and worldly challenges, though they operate in distinct domains. Rationality is the disciplined application of logic and reason, producing precise, structured outcomes based on defined assumptions. Reasonableness, by contrast, is subjective, situating rationality within the boundaries of context and desired objectives. It serves as a flexible judgment about what is appropriate or justifiable in a given situation. For Muslims, these concepts intersect deeply with faith, as rationality aids in interpreting divine will while reasonableness ensures that interpretations remain contextually sensitive. This dual approach has historically allowed Islamic thought to balance timeless divine principles with the changing needs of human societies. The tension between the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and certain interpretations of Islamic law exemplifies the challenges of applying reason and reasonableness in modern contexts. The issue of apostasy remains a particularly thorny obstacle, with some conservative voices outright rejecting the UDHR. For instance, Grand Ayatollah Khamenei’s dismissal of the UDHR as "mumbo jumbo by disciples of Satan" underscores a perception of inherent conflict between divine commands and human constructs. While his prioritization of the Qur'an over human declarations resonates with many Muslims, it dismisses the possibility of harmony between divine wisdom and universal ethics. As a Muslim, it is both perplexing and disheartening to see such rigid opposition, given that rational engagement with both frameworks could reveal common ground. Reconciliation between faith-based and universal principles remains a path worth exploring, guided by the twin lights of rationality and reasonableness. The Mu’tazila were neither angels nor demons but torchbearers of an intellectual tradition that sought to harmonize faith with reason. This account illuminates Islam's history as a richly layered narrative, interweaving diverse interpretations, spirited debates and disparate voices. As Muslims navigate the uncharted waters of the modern world, revisiting the Mutazila’s legacy may offer a compass to guide them toward a faith that is both timeless and timely — a beacon of light in a world often shrouded in shadows. ----- V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar of Islamic humanism. He writes with a passion for developing Quranic hermeneutics that prioritize human well-being, peace, and progress. His work inspires the creation of a just society, fosters critical thinking, and promotes inclusive discourse and peaceful coexistence. URL: https://www.newageislam.com/debating-islam/faith-reason-early-lessons-mutazila-debate/d/133741 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism