Islam Professes and Practices Ethics of Pluralism

The Quran Terms Jews, Christians and Other Monotheist Communities Ahl-e-Kitab, Not Kafir Main Points: 1. Islam preaches good relations with other religious communities. 2. Islam preaches equality for all citizens. 3. The Charter of Madina was based on the ethics of pluralism. 4. The Quran describes a section of Jews and Christians as mumineen. ----- By New Age Islam Staff Writer 10 June 2022 The relation between the Muslims and other religious communities has been a subject of debate because of the exclusivist and inclusivist interpretations of the Quranic verses. There is a small coterie of the Islamic scholars who, based on their supremacist outlook, believe that the historical Islam is the only true religion and all other religions are false. Even if they believe that the faith of Prophet Jesus and Prophet Moses was revealed by Allah, they also believe that with the revelation of Islam, all the previous religions have become outdated and now those believing in them are heretics or Kafirs. The general notion of the common Muslims thanks to this interpretation is that the Jews and the Christians are Kafirs. They don't give a thought to the term Ahl ul Kitab used by the Quran on a number of occasions. The Quran calls a section of the People of the Book Fasiq (sinners) or Mufsid (corrupt) because of their deviant ways and innovative beliefs not testified by the Scriptures. The Quran does not brand all the People of the Book as Kafirs. Take this verse for example: "And if the people of the book had believed it would have been better for them, some of them are indeed believers but most of them are fasiqun."(Al-e-Imran). Here the actual word (Fasiq) has been reproduced to convey the true sense of the verse. The Urdu translation has the word Nafarman which does not convey the true sense. Here the Quran does not call them Kafiroon but calls them Fasiqun. It is important to not that even a Muslim is called a Fasiq when he is involved in un-Islamic practices. Indeed the Quran terms those among the people of the book who practice shirk or go totally against the fundamental beliefs and practices of the Abrahamic religions as kafirs. But not all the people of the book are considered Kafirs. Therefore, this was the reason the Charter of Madina was based on the ethics of pluralism and it became the basis of the law making in the most Islamic nations. Later, many modern Islamic scholars, exegetes and thinkers like Muhammad Asad and Maulana Wahiduddin Khan stressed on the ethics of pluralism envisaged in the Quran. The Ummayyid caliphate in Spain, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt, the Ottoman caliphate in Turkey and the Mughal Empire in India was based on this ethic of pluralism. It is also a fact that in about a century of the foundation of the State of Madina, a confessional identity emerged among the Muslims but this phenomenon was a reaction to the confessional identity of other religious communities that tried to weild a political influence on other religious communities. Therefore, this confessional identity of Muslims was a result of their struggle to establish themselves as a nation with a distinct political identity. However, this movement for making Muslims a distinct religious community gave to a puritanical outlook of religion and later gave birth to sectarianism in Islam. Sufism was discarded by a section of Muslims as a legacy of Christianity and so on. Based on the puritanical beliefs of different sections of Muslims many sects came into existence. Dr. Adis Dudreja's article deals with this issue of relationship of the Muslims with other religious communities in the initial stage of Islam and in the modern world perspective.This is an important issue which needs to be resolved in order to bring the ongoing identity crisis in the Muslim world to an end. ---- The Muslim and Religious ‘Other’: Reflections on Early Islam and Beyond from the Perspective of Contemporary Scholarship By Dr Adis Duderija June 6, 2022 Image: Cordoba Mosque/Church, Spain. Credit: Marianne/Flickr. ------ How do the primary sources of Islamic teaching, the Qur’an and Sunna (i.e. the living tradition), approach the relationship between the Muslim Self and the religious Other? To begin to answer this question more needs to be said about the environment in which the Qur’anic revelation and the early living tradition unfolded. Even a cursory examination of the nature of the Qur’an as Revelation and its content shows it was organically linked to this context, including its dimension that relates to the relationship between Muslims and the religious Other. Beyond scripture, the approach taken by various Muslim communities in history in relation to this question has also varied. Ze’ev Maghen, a noted scholar of the nature of interactions between Muslims and non- Muslims in early Islam, described the context and the dynamics behind the relationship between Muslims and their normative tradition and non-Muslims, with what the Qur’an terms the communities of the People of the Book (ahl al-kitab – Christians, Jews and others), in the following manner: ‘Islam’s relationship with the People of the Book has had its ups and downs. The growing familiarity of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula with the ideas, institutions and communities of the surrounding monotheisms, followed by the initial and increasingly intense encounters of the nascent Muslim Ummah with the same, bred the complex mixture of attitudes to Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism discernable through the classical literature of the faith. The seminal texts and genres— Qur’ān, Hadīth, Tafsīr, Sharh, and Fiqh— evince a multifaceted and pendulating posture vis- à- vis the religio- cultural “other” that partakes more of dialectic than dogma’ Based on Maghen’s analysis, in addition to studies done by noted scholars Yohanan Friedmann and Jacques Waardenburg, several general points need to be considered. First, as noted briefly above, the context behind the emergence of Islam was such that it took place alongside other already well- established religious communities, the most important of which, apart from Arabian pre- Qur’anic beliefs, were Judaism, Hanifiyya, and Christianity. The very fabric and nature of the message embodied in the Qur’an clearly depicts many of the events and attitudes of the Muslim community toward the non-Muslim Other and vice versa. Second, as noted above, it is essential to point out that the qur’anic attitude (and Muhammad’s praxis) toward the non-Muslim Other is highly contextual in nature and therefore could be described as context-dependent. As such, scholars have talked about the presence of salvifically inclusivist and exclusivist verses in the Qur’an. Additionally, for the large part of the ‘formative period’ of the Muslim community in Medina, a climate of conflict, friction, and hostility prevailed among Muslims, Arab polytheists, large Jewish tribes, Christians, and what Qur’an terms religious hypocrites (munafiqun), under which Muslims were constantly concerned about the sheer survival of their community. William Montgomery Watt, a noted scholar of the formative Islamic period, described the circumstances and the motives behind the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims, especially between the Prophet of Islam and Jews in Medina, as follows: ‘In Muhammad’s first two years at Medina the Jews were the most dangerous critics of his claim to be a prophet, and the religious fervour of his followers, on which so much depended, was liable to be greatly reduced unless Jewish criticisms could be silenced or rendered impotent. . . . in so far as the Jews changed their attitude and ceased to be actively hostile, they were unmolested’ This context often expressed itself in a reactionary, antagonistic type of identity toward the religious Other. This is well evidenced not only in the Qur’an but also in additional ‘canonical’ literature such as the hadith and Islamic jurisprudence. This has led to the development of ideas and religious/legal concepts such as al- wala’ wa’l bara’ and tashabbuh bi-l kuffar that emphasised the distinctiveness of Muslims in relation to the Religious Other. In the modern context, Islamic fundamentalist and extremist groups have employed these concepts to not only distance themselves from whom they consider to be unbelievers (kuffar) but from what they view to be deviant Muslims. Proponents of Islamic moderation (Wasatiyya) and progressives are rethinking these concepts through applying a contextualist and historical lens to them, thereby either restricting their applicability or challenging their validity. This context-dependency of the scriptures toward the view of the Religious Other (and, therefore, by implication the religious Self) led scholar Jacques Waardenburg to assert that ‘Looking back at the interaction of the new Islamic religious movement with the existing religious communities, we are struck by the importance of socio-political factors’. Religious ideas were also significant in understanding the nature of the Muslim Self and Religious Other relationship, since, as alluded to above, Qur’anic Islamic religious identity is inextricably linked with the religious identity of others, notably Jews and Christians. Thus, the religious aspects of, and interactions between, various religious communities in the Qur’anic milieu led to the construction of religious identity of Muslims and played a particularly important role in it. For example, in his study on the question to what extent Qur’anic scripture emphasised confessional distinctiveness, Scholar Fred Donner asserted that, scripturally (that is, based upon Qur’anic evidence) and in early Islam, the community which Donner terms the Believers (Mu’minin) seems to have been originally conceptualised as independent of confessional identities. (It was only later— apparently during the third quarter of the first century A.H.— that membership in the community of Believers came to be seen as confessional identity in itself: Being a Believer and Muslim meant that one could not also be a Christian, say, or a Jew.) In other words, Donner adduced substantial evidence that it could be argued that Qur’anically (some) Jews and Christians qualify as Mu’minun (believers) as well as Muslimun (those who submit to God). Friedmann detected a similar ancient layer in the Islamic tradition during which the boundaries of the Muslim community had not been precisely delineated and according to which ‘the Jews and the Christians belonged to the community of Muhammad.’ This ‘ancient layer of tradition … was in general more considerate toward the People of the Book than that which eventually became the established law’. Another trend significant in the historical development of the Muslim religious Self vis-à-vis the Religious Other was the gradual, ever-growing, religious self-consciousness of the Prophet of Islam and his early community. While attempts to find common ground occurred more frequently during the earlier periods of Muhammad’s life, later periods increasingly stressed confessional and self-conscious Muslim identity. An additional point to be considered is the Qur’anic concept of a Hanif/Millat Ibrahim. Qur’anically, this belief system is presented as a primordial, monotheistic Urreligion based on the belief in One, True God as embodied by Abraham’s message (Arabic, Ibrahim)— considered as the universal belief system and as potentially the final evolution in Qur’an’s attitude toward the religious Self and the Other. As noted by Waardenburg, it is, however, unclear whether the Qur’an identified what became historical Islam ‘as the only or merely as one possible realization of the primordial religion, the Hanīfīya, on earth.’ Beyond Early Islam In the post-revelatory times, the major delineating feature that marked the relationship between the Muslim religious Self and the religious Other was the fact that Islam became an imperial faith, and that Muslims in many contexts belonged to the ruling elite. Hence, Muslims were in a position ‘to determine the nature of their relationship with the others in conformity with their world-view and in accordance with their beliefs.’ How Muslims determined this relationship is varied, with examples of both the ethic of pluralism and exclusivism. My focus will be on the ethic of pluralism. The notion of ‘ethic of pluralism’ that I use here is embodied in the idea of intrinsic metaphysical unity between human beings. It is akin to the argument that in the soul of each human being resides a spark of Divine flame which connects all to the Divine as well as to each other. One consequence of this spiritual unity of the entire human race is the idea of respecting the religious Other and, on this basis, working together toward the achievement of common goals and interests. This is only possible if coexistence and mutual respect regarding the religious Other are the norm. This ethic of pluralism in Islam was, to various degrees of success, implemented in past and present Muslim societies. Historians of Islam name the Umayyad Spain, Fatimid Egypt, Ottoman Turkey, and Mughal India as examples of Muslims ‘who based their policies towards minorities on the Qur’an’s intrinsically humanist ethos, exemplified to them by the Prophet in his community at Medina’. In more contemporary times, some attempts by Muslim political and religious leaders, such as those behind the Marrakesh Declaration on the rights of religious minorities in predominantly Muslim majorities can be seen to stay true to and amplify this ethic of pluralism. The immediate context that saw the urgent need for the establishment of this legal framework and call to action was the rise of violent extremist Muslim groups such as ISIS/Da’esh, but the timing of the Declaration itself was to mark the 1,400th anniversary of the Charter of Medina which it describes as a ‘constitutional contract between the Prophet Muhammad, God’s peace and blessings be upon him, and the people of Medina, which guaranteed the religious liberty of all, regardless of faith.’ Among others, the Declaration calls upon the various national religious groups ‘to address their mutual state of selective amnesia that blocks memories of centuries of joint and shared living on the same land; we call upon them to rebuild the past by reviving this tradition of conviviality, and restoring our shared trust that has been eroded by extremists using acts of terror and aggression’ and to ‘affirm that it is unconscionable to employ religion for the purpose of aggressing upon the rights of religious minorities in Muslim countries.’ Some contemporary progressive Muslim groups have taken the ethic of pluralism beyond its moral, ethical, legal and socio-political dimensions and have developed an Islamic soteriology and theology of pluralism. The Muslim Other Early Islam witnessed several foundational events that not only significantly shaped the relationship between the Muslim Self and the Religious Other, but also the idea of the Muslim Internal Other. Faced by the mushrooming of diverse Muslim theological and juristic schools of thought in the first two to three centuries of Islam in particular (some of which are still present today despite a millennium of attempts by many to enforce an Islamic orthodoxy) as the Islamic interpretive tradition began to take shape one of the main questions that entertained the minds of many a Muslim scholar/theologian is what it means to be a true Muslim and what are the boundaries of faith (Iman). Some answers to these questions are documented by pre-modern Muslim scholars such as Shahrastani (d.1153 CE), one of the earliest Islamic ‘heresiographers’ and scholar of comparative religion in his work Religious Parties and Schools of Philosophy [i.e. Kitāb al-milal]. It is noteworthy that, historically speaking, the major theological schools in Islam have theologically invested a lot in the idea of a Saved Sect, a trend that still exists today predominantly in Athari/Salafi and Asha’ri schools of thought providing a very narrow understanding and definition of the concept of a religiously ideal believer. Relatedly, the accusations of unbelief, including in what today are considered mainstream approaches to the Islamic tradition, were not infrequent. The answer to the questions of correct belief remains contested as does the idea of what constitutes (Sunni) Islamic orthodoxy to this very day, reminding us of the reality of a very diverse number of Islamic sects and denominations over time. Over the last two decades we have witnessed an increase in Islamic sectarianism and despite some efforts to enhance Islamic ecumenism the current socio-political and religious reality suggests that the major religious players are too invested in their own versions of Islamic history to be able to overcome this sectarian heritage that they carry and, in many ways, embody. Conclusion In summary, it would be fair to conclude that the relationship between the Muslim religious Self and the religious Other was contextual and underwent several shifts and developments that are evident both in the nature of the Qur’anic revelation and in early Muslim history. Given the nature of the historical sources, the exact dates of these shifts cannot be ascertained with certainty and therefore no uniform normative stance on the nature of this relationship can be deduced. This conclusion is reflected in the ongoing debates between various Muslims groups as to what this attitude or approach toward the Religious Other should be. The aforementioned Marakesh Declaration, the path of Islamic extremist and progressive groups are examples. Just as importantly the Islamic tradition, not unlike any other world religion, is also steeped in debates pertaining to intra-Muslim differences, theological or otherwise, and has given rise to an extraordinarily rich tapestry of Islamic sects and denominations. In this respect the continued diversity of ways of being a Muslim today and associated debates about what constitutes Islamic orthodoxy is a timely reminder that the question of the normative relationship between the Religious Self and the Religious Other is not something that applies just across reified religious traditions but is also an integral part of the very dynamic, historically contingent self-understanding of every religious tradition, Islam included. --- Dr Adis Duderija is a Senior Lecturer in the Study of Islam and Society, School of Humanities, Languages and Social Science ; Senior Fellow Centre for Interfaith and Intercultural Dialogue. Griffith University | Nathan | QLD 4111 | Macrossan (N16) Room 2.27 Source: The Muslim And Religious ‘Other’: Reflections On Early Islam And Beyond From The Perspective Of Contemporary Scholarship URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-pluralism/professes-practices-ethics-pluralism/d/127214 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

The Moral Lessons to Be Learnt From Nupur Sharma Episode

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 10 June 2022 1. Daste-Khizaan Ne Uss Ko Wahin Badh Ke Chun Liya 2. Jo Phool Gir Pada Nigahe-Andaleeb Se 3. Ahle-Sukoon Se Khel Na Ae' Mauje-Imbisaat 4. Ik Din Ulajh Ke Dekh Kisi Badnaseeb Se 5. -Shakeel Badayuni (The hands of autumn picked up the flower that fell from the sight of the nightingale/Oh, the waves of delight, don't play with peace-loving people, rather play with someone who has witnessed the turmoil of life). Photo: The Times of India ---- Shakeel's aforementioned quatrain is germane to the current goings-on. Here, I'm not gloating over Nupur Sharma or Jindal's ' misfortune.' I'm not one to gloat over the ill-fate of even my sworn enemies, let alone those I never even had a word with. My point is different. The whole murky episode has many takeaways and a moral lesson for all. That you cannot corner a person or community for a long time. General Jagjit Singh Arora, the Eastern Commander and main architect of India's overwhelming triumph over Pakistan in 1971 War, told BBC that he was sure that the plight of the Bengalis of the East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) wouldn't go abegging and the way Pakistanis ill-treated the Bengalis (though they were also Muslims but spoke Bangla; ethnicity is often stronger than religious bonds and ethos) for an inordinately long time, will eventually backfire on them (Pakistani Army, mostly comprising Punjabis). The haughtily supercilious Lt. General A A K Niazi (later stripped of his rank) finally surrendered with 93, 000 Pakistani soldiers and Bengalis got a country, Bangladesh, for themselves. To cut the matter short, “Inn Allah M'a As-Saabireen” (إِنَّ اللّهَ مَعَ الصَّابِرِينَ)-Allah is with those who keep patience. Sooner or later table is turned. Milton said the same in his poem, ' On His Blindness,' "They also serve who only stand and wait." There's a Yiddish proverb, “Belne’z Asi Ken Mizaaf “(Wait and watch how the oppressor falls eventually). There's no denying the fact that Muslims were at the receiving end for quite a long time. They were reduced to Gentiles and Heathens in recent times. My innocent Muslim newspaper vendor, who comes from Camp area, 6 km from my place, just to deliver an Urdu paper was stopped and beaten by the society members and they also questioned me: Padhe-Likhe Aadmi Hokar Bhi Aap Urdu Akhbaar Kyon Padhte Hain? (Why do you read an Urdu daily despite being an educated person?) As if Urdu is the language of uneducated people! People chant anti-India slogans to condemn the derogatory references to Prophet Muhammad in Karachi, Pakistan, Monday. (Photo | AP) ---- Muslims were being harassed at the drop of a hat. In other words, it wasn't a dichotomy between Hindus and Muslims, but a Draconian Droctomy (Dutch for one sect or section being too oppressed). When audacity is not thwarted at the initial stage/s, it degenerates into open affront, opined the French General Charles D Gaulle. Exactly the same happened, when the lady in question went on to insult Muhammad, Prophet for the Muslims. That was the last straw on the camel's back and also the final nail in the coffin. Things wouldn't have been so bad, had such loudmouths been stopped long ago. What was the use of waiting for the volcano to erupt like the Mount Vesuvius and engulf the whole nation just like the Vesuvius swallowed Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 79 CE? India could have avoided the international backlash had these characters been caged in and not unleashed. We all learn the hard way. Persian mystic-poet Jami articulated it so well, “Before abusing someone, remember you can be slapped along with the return abuses." So, whatever happens, happens for a reason. An angry activist stomps on a poster of Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) official in Mumbai, India, on June 6, 2022, during a protest against her blasphemous comments on Prophet Mohammed. (REUTERS/Francis Mascarenhas) ----- It's time for both the communities to introspect and live amicably. You cannot live abusing and humiliating the other one all the time. Tang Aamad, Ba' Jang Aamad (English equivalent: Even a worm will turn at last). Remember, what Jigar Moradabadi said, “Un Kā Jo Farz Hai Vo Ahl-E-Siyāsat Jāneñ /Merā Paiġhām Mohabbat Hai Jahāñ Tak Pahuñche." Disseminate love. It'll come back manifold. We've had enough of these Hindu-Muslim sqabbles and skirmishes. ---- A frequent contributor for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-politics/moral-lessons-nupur-sharma-episode/d/127213 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

The Legitimacy of Arbitration [Tahkim] as a Dispute Resolution Mechanism under Islamic Sharia

By Ghulam Ghaus Siddiqi, New Age Islam 9 June 2022 Contrasts between Sulh and Arbitration and Their Validity in Islam Main Points 1. Arbitration and peaceful settlement (Sulh) have a long history in Arab and Islamic communities. 2. In Islamic law, arbitration has received a lot of attention, resulting in a set of well-defined rules and methods. 3. The validity of Sulh could be supported by the Quranic verses and hadiths that favour arbitration. 4. Any party may deny arbitration as long as it has not begun, and the arbitrator may withdraw from the case at any time, even after agreeing once, as long as he has not begun issuing a verdict. 5. Arbitration is legal in some financial and social matters, with the exception of Hudud, Li'aan (mutual cursing, a sort of divorce), and penalties. ----- Photo: Prezi.com ----- Arbitration and peaceful settlement (Sulh) have a long history in Arab and Islamic communities, and their origins may be traced back to pre-Islamic Arabia. In any kind of dispute resolution, Sulh is the desirable outcome and method. In order to make the judicial process easier, Islam has legitimised arbitration. In Islamic law, arbitration has received a lot of attention, resulting in a set of well-defined rules and methods. Arbitration has many advantages, including streamlined procedures, confidential hearings, and a legal basis, especially if those in charge are recognised for their skill, intelligence, independence, experience, honesty, and wisdom, as well as the capacity to apply its standards oversees. The distinction between Sulh and arbitration is slight. The validity of Sulh could be supported by the Quranic verses and hadiths that favour arbitration. The Quran and Sunna have both sanctioned arbitration in the form of a third party chosen by the disputing parties to resolve their differences through conciliation or adjudication. The contrasts between the two are, however, acknowledged. In Islam, arbitration differs from Sulh in three ways: first, Sulh allows for an amicable settlement between the parties with or without the assistance of others, but arbitration requires the appointment of a third party. The disagreeing parties in Sulh, on the other hand, have the option of using an arbitrator to reach an agreement. As a result, arbitration can be used as a Sulh tool. Second, a Sulh agreement is not enforceable unless it is made in front of a court, but arbitration, according to the majority of jurists, is enforceable without the intervention of a court. Third, Sulh can only be used if a conflict has already happened; it cannot be used to resolve a potential dispute, whereas arbitration can be used to resolve both existing and potential disputes. [Aseel Al-Ramahi, Sulh: A Crucial Part of Islamic Arbitration, London School of Economics and Political Science, Law Department, p.12] The legality of arbitration is supported by the Holy Qur'an, Sunnah, and Ijma. Allah Almighty Says: “And if you fear dissension between the two, send an arbitrator from his people and an arbitrator from her people. If they both desire reconciliation, Allāh will cause it between them. Indeed, Allāh is ever Knowing and Aware.” (4:35) He Almighty also says, “But no, by your Lord, they will not [truly] believe until they make you, [O Muhammad], judge concerning that over which they dispute among themselves and then find within themselves no discomfort from what you have judged and submit in [full, willing] submission.” (4:65) The first verse confirms that a problem between married couples must be settled through arbitration before a divorce can be granted. It explains why there must be two arbitrators (one from each side). In the second verse of the Quran, anybody who determines a matter and assigns blame to parties is obligated to do so in an honest and just manner. This verse gives judges the authority to reach legally binding decisions. Alternatively, these passages could be seen as necessitating Sulh between rival parties. In any event, the primary purpose of arbitration is to ensure that Muslim disputes are resolved in a peaceful and equitable manner. The Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, is reported to have said, “Whoever arbitrates between two consensual without fairness, Allah's wrath is on him.” The beloved Prophet [peace be upon him] advised Muslims and non-Muslims to settle their disagreements through arbitration. One of the first non-Muslims to follow this counsel was the Bani Qarnata clan. The Prophet acted as an arbitrator as well as a party who agreed to the arbitrator’s decision. A clause in the Treaty of Medina, the first treaty made by the Muslim community, which enabled problems to be settled by arbitration and was signed in 622 A.D. between Muslims, non-Muslims, Arabs, and Jews, is another example of the Prophet's use of arbitration. According to Sunni Islamic Jurisprudence, once an arbitrator makes a decision, it becomes binding on both parties in the same way as a contract or a court ruling. A contract, in accordance with Islamic Sharia, is divine in nature, and upholding one's agreements is a holy duty. Allah Almighty says: “And fulfil the covenant of Allah when you have taken it, [O believers], and do not break oaths after their confirmation while you have made Allah, over you, a witness. Indeed, Allah knows what you do.” (16:91) The validity of arbitration is further supported by the unanimous agreement [Ijma] of the Prophet's holy companions (peace be upon him). Arbitration is given special attention in Arab and Muslim countries. They have made a particular chapter in the Civil and Commercial Procedures Code. Through Federal Law No. 6 of 2018, some countries, such as the United Arab Emirates, recognised arbitration as a separate system. The New York Convention of 1958 was signed and approved by the majority of Arab and Muslim countries. In its ninth session (April 1995), held in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, the International Islamic Fiqh Academy supported arbitration as a legitimate means of dispute resolution, deciding that arbitration is an agreement between the two parties to a specific dispute to appoint a third party to arbitrate between them and resolve their differences through a binding verdict based on Islamic Sharia. Arbitration in this sense is legal, whether between individuals or in the context of international conflicts. It is important to emphasise that neither the disputing parties nor the arbitrator are obligated to conduct the arbitration. Any party may deny arbitration as long as it has not begun, and the arbitrator may withdraw from the case at any time, even after agreeing once, as long as he has not begun issuing a verdict. Because their consent is related to his own personality, he cannot designate someone else to function in his place without the approval of the two parties concerned. Arbitration is legal in some financial and social matters, with the exception of Hudud, Li'aan (mutual cursing, a sort of divorce), and penalties. Arbitration is likewise not permissible in instances that fall solely under the authority of the court. Any arbitration in a matter not susceptible to arbitration is null and void. ……. A regular Columnist with NewAgeIslam.com, Ghulam Ghaus Siddiqi Dehlvi is an Alim and Fazil (Classical Islamic scholar) with a Sufi background and English-Arabic-Urdu Translator. URL: https://newageislam.com/islamic-ideology/arbitration-tahkim-islamic-sharia/d/127206 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Religion Doesn't Teach Us to Hate Each Other

By Saquib Salim, New Age Islam 09-06-2022 Tradition of Rahim and Raskhan Who Wrote In Praise of Hindu Deities during the Medieval Times Was Carried Forward By the Muslim Thinkers of the 20th Century As Well Main Points: 1. People who were seen mocking Prophet Muhammad were also products of a few of the best educational institutions. 2. World has witnessed how these so-called ‘leaders’ mocked the religious figures revered by millions. 3. People with degrees from eminent educational institutions were mocking ‘Shivling’ in the name of political rhetoric. ---- Representational image ---- In the last few days, the controversy over the comments made by certain politicians, ‘religious leaders, and activists on religious figures in the television debates have taken a centre stage in public discourse. The world has witnessed how these so-called ‘leaders’ mocked the religious figures revered by millions. I have been hearing that good education at modern educational institutions teaches people to be sensitive with others and can cure the politics of hate since childhood. But, we have seen how people with degrees from eminent educational institutions were mocking ‘Shivling’ in the name of political rhetoric, thus injuring the sentiments of millions. The people who were seen mocking Prophet Muhammad were also products of a few of the best educational institutions. Interestingly the very cure of religious hatred as suggested by the liberal West seems to be the deadliest form of the disease. The modern education institutions have, no doubt, imparted knowledge but are devoid of sensitivities towards the sentiments of fellow humans. If we look back at the times when modern western education had not penetrated our society like today, we find that educated Hindus and Muslims would talk about each other’s religions with due respect. The tradition of Rahim and Raskhan who wrote in praise of Hindu deities during the medieval times was carried forward by the Muslim thinkers of the 20th century as well. Who symbolizes the Muslim identity in the subcontinent more than Sir Muhammad Iqbal? In an article written in 2016 by yours truly, I have explained the devotion Iqbal had for Lord Rama through a poem written by him. I wrote, “For Iqbal, Lord Ram is not merely a Hindu God but “Imam-e-Hind” (spiritual leader of India). For him, people with vision or wisdom consider him the spiritual leader of Indians. As he writes; Hai Raam Ke Wajood Pe Hindustaan Ko Naaz Ahl-e-Nazar Samajhte Hain Us Ko Imam-e-Hind (India is proud of the existence of Ram Spiritual people consider him prelate of India) It is quite evident that he does not believe that Ram is the leader of Hindus alone; otherwise, he would have used the word Ahl-e-Hind (people of India) rather than Ahl-e-Nazar (people with vision). For him, the status of Lord Ram as a spiritual leader is not limited to the Vaishnavas or Hindus only. Lord Ram lives in the ethos of India and its people.” Iqbal, in the poem dedicated to Lord Rama, has accorded him the status of the philosopher head of all the philosophers of the World. The reverence of Rama and dedication to Islam, do not contradict each other in Iqbal’s world. Hafeez Jalandhari, a Madrasa-educated poet who wrote the national anthem of Pakistan, has also written in praise of Lord Krishna. In his poem, Krishn Kanhaiya Hafeez urged Lord Krishna to save India from foreign rulers. I wrote, “The poet hopes that Krishna will come back as a saviour of the country. At the very outset, Hafeez draws the attention of readers toward the grandeur of Krishna using the words; Ai Dekhne Walo Is Husn Ko Dekho Is Raaz Ko Samjho (O you who is watching, look at this beauty. Try to understand this secret) He goes on to write; Ye Paikar-e-Tanviir Ye Krishn Ki Tasviir (This manifestation of light; this portrait of Krishna) It is important here to note that among common Muslims Prophet Muhammad is supposed to be a manifestation of light. By using the same metaphor for Krishna, Hafeez in a way reiterates the age-old belief of a section of Islamic scholars, that Krishna was a righteous prophet sent to the people of the subcontinent. In the poem he stresses his belief again by saying; Ye Nar Hai Ya Nuur (Is he human or light)?” Khwaja Hasan Nizami, a respected Islamic scholar, had written Krishn Beeti. Nizami while describing the scene of Lord Krishna’s birth wrote, “Today is the arrival of that commander in chief, army general and military leader of India, whose armies used to roam around victorious. He is the foremost leader and general of the Indian subcontinent. Today those eyes are going to open themselves which will look after the earth and the sky. He comforts Indians in private as well as in public, in happiness as well as in sorrow, during life as well as in death. Krishna is the leader of the adults and a beloved of the children.” The list is endless. Several Muslim thinkers, writers, and leaders have paid tributes to Hindu religious figures. Never, not even the most orthodox of Muslim leaders, tried to demean any Hindu religious figure. It must be noted that the Urdu Textbooks written by Maulvi Muhammad Ismail Merathi, which are used in the Madrasas of the subcontinent for more than a century have dedicated chapters on Hindu religious figures. In the fourth book of Urdu, Ismail wrote about Sita Ji: “In short Sita was a perfect and unmatched example of a pious, loyal, patient, and loving wife.” One can think that after reading such Urdu books at Madrasas what kind of reverence Muslims developed for Hindu religious figures. No wonder Hafeez, Hasrat, Nizami, and others wrote in praise of Lord Krishna, Lord Rama or Lord Shiva. The respect was not a one-way affair and Hindus as well revered Islamic figures. The people who had their education rooted in orthodox Hindu traditions believed that Islam deserved equal respect as Hinduism. In 1921, Jagadguru Shankaracharya of Shri Sharada Peeth endorsed and publicized a Fatwa in support of Khilafat. He was charged by the British for propagating anti-imperialistic ideas. Shankaracharya said, “As a believer in the doctrine of Swa-Dharma for all, every Hindu should necessarily sympathize with the Khilafat cause.” Chaudhary Dillu Ram Kausari of Hisar, Haryana used to write ‘Naat’ (eulogies in praise of Prophet Muhammad). His book of eulogies was published in 1924. The introduction to the book said that the purpose of the publication was to bring out the pro-Islamic nature of common Hindus while a few fringe extremists might indulge in violence. How important is the reiteration of this point in the present times filled with hate? Dillu Ram wrote, Kar Ae Hindu Bayaan Is Tarz Se Tu Vasf Ahmad Ka Musalmaan Maan Jaye Sab Loha Tegh-e-Muhannad Ka (O Hindu praise the quality of Ahmad in such a fashion That they start admiring your literary skills) And, Kuch Ishq-e-Payambar Me Nahi Shart-e-Musalman Hai Kausari Hindu Bhi Talabgaar-e-Muhammad (Being Muslim is no condition to love Muhammad O Kausari, even Hindus are the seeker of Muhammad) The Indian ethos of coexistence is best described by one of India's tiop scientists, Professor Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, when he writes, “Adha Muslim Hun to Adha Mera Hindu Me Shumaar” (I am half Muslim and the other half belongs to Hinduism). As Indians, we have to ponder upon what went wrong in educating our people through the western modern system. Why do we tend to demean religious faiths and in turn hurt the sentiments of a large population? Is it to sound rationale, secular and progressive? Education devoid of sensitivity towards human emotions will lead to disasters. We need an education system rooted in the culture that teaches us coexistence and mutual respect. The western model of society cannot be superimposed on one of the oldest, most dynamic, and most vibrant civilizations of the World. We need to reiterate that: Mazhab Nahi Sikhata Aapas Main Bair Rakhna (Religion doesn’t teach us to hate each other) Source: Religion Doesn't Teach Us to Hate Each Other URL: https://newageislam.com/interfaith-dialogue/religion-hate-hindu-muslim-raskhan/d/127205 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Mankind Is Fortunate That Blasphemy Exists Only In Islam, Not In All Faiths

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 8 June 2022 Mankind Is Lucky That Blasphemy Is Limited Only To Islam and This Madness Doesn't Exist In Other Religions ---- (File Photo) ----- The way Islamic countries and Muslims across the globe are reacting to Nupur Sharma's comment on Muhammad, one's reminded of Kai Nielsen's words, “In a way, mankind is lucky that blasphemy is limited only to Islam and this madness doesn't exist in other religions and religious cults. Had it existed in other religions as well, we'd still have been shedding blood over the perceived insults to our respective religious figures." So very true. Now when the terrorists of Al-Qaeda are threatening to blow themselves up to prove their blind and slavish loyalty to Rasool, world is again asking the same question: Is Islam indeed a religion of peace or piece? Well, before I discuss this, I'd like to dwell upon the idea of blasphemy or sacrilege (Kufr) in Islam. By the way, I wrote a piece in TOI: Why Blasphemy Is Alien To Hinduism . Mind you, I'm NOT a Hindu. The newspaper categorically mentioned that the writer is an atheist who always writes God in lower case. Blasphemy is integral to Islam and Persian mystic Mansoor al-Hallaj's excoriation (922 CE) for proclaiming Upanishadic An-al-Haq (I'm the Truth/god) being its earliest recorded instance. Later Ibn Taimiyyah (1263-1328) codified and institutionalized blasphemy for apostates and atheists. ---------------------------------------------------------------- Also Read: Pakistan: Female Madrasa Teacher Killed for Blasphemy; Muslims must discard the theology behind anti-Blasphemy laws in several countries ---------------------------------------------------------------- Most of the Muslims have a cult-bonding with Islam and a cult always demands strict adherence from its followers which often degenerates into Totalitarianism. And there's no gainsaying the fact that Islam or for that matter, any cult is a totalitarian unit, predominantly, a tribal, desert/arid unit of early believers believing in dictates and blindly following a (dictatorial) leader. This belief is always unquestionable (From, ' Sociology of religion-New World Encyclopaedia '). Like fundamentalist Judaism and medieval Christianity, Islam is totalist. That's to say, it makes a total claim on the individual. Indeed there's no individual; there's only the Ummah- the community of believers. Islam follows you everywhere, into the kitchen, into the bedroom, into the bathroom, and beyond death and eternity. Islam means -'submission'- The surrender of independence of mind. The surrender now bears the weight of well over 60 generations and 14 centuries. ---------------------------------------------------------------- Also Read: Blasphemy Outrages; The Frenzy Goes On Unchecked: Will The Ulema Take Responsibility For The Murders Of Innocents? ---------------------------------------------------------------- While followers of all other man-made faiths have matured and somewhat evolved with the passage of time, most of the Muslims still live and think on a mofussil plane with desert moorings of cult-worship. They don't want to change themselves because their cultish association with Allah, Muhammad, Quran and Hadees is too strong. The sense of being sacrosanct is ingrained in almost all Muslims. Agreed, Jewish and Christians also wreaked havoc and burnt heretics at the stake, they don't do such reprehensible things any longer, because a modicum of maturity dawned on them as centuries glided by. But sense and sagacity still elude most of the Muslims. ---------------------------------------------------------------- Also Read: How Not to Talk About Blasphemy ---------------------------------------------------------------- Hindus in the past mercilessly burnt Charvaka and his followers alive and tortured Jains and Buddhists at the behest of their religious heads but that was more hierarchical (read Brahmanical) and caste-based (indeed, condemnable) and less religious in nature. Somewhere down the line, all faiths grudgingly accepted the religious crimes perpetrated in the past by their followers and asked for forgiveness at some point in time, however insincere that may be, to get along with the rest of mankind. But that willingness, even grudging or at face value, is not to be found among a majority of Muslims. Today, if you condemn Jesus and brand Mary's Immaculate Conception as a mere mare's nest, no Christian will decollate you. Even if you say that the PUTATIVE Jesus was never crucified at Calvary (Islam doesn't believe in the Crucifixion of Christ and aptly calls it Cruci-fiction!), a Christian will curse you and sulk but will not physically harm you. Likewise, if you say before a Jew (or even a Christian) that Moses receiving The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) from god at Mount Sinai is a humbug or Moses was high on psychedelic drugs (https://www.iol.co.za/news/world/moses-was-high-on-drugs-researcher-391832), no Jew or Christian will hang you. But say anything unpleasant and even mildly unnerving about Muhammad, your crossover is assured, nay guaranteed. This is rank puerile behaviour which clearly shows the total absence of Aql-e-Saleem (prudence) among the followers of Islam. Remember, Islam is still a relatively young faith when pitted against Judaism, Zoroastrianism (first monotheistic faith), Christianity and Hinduism. Others are just cults. So, Islam's collective maturity level is still comparatively low. Hope, it evolves enough to be called a religion of 'peace' and sanity in the days, sorry, centuries to come. ---- A frequent contributor for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://newageislam.com/the-war-within-islam/mankind-blasphemy-faiths/d/127197 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

The Big Bang Theory and the Quran

By Naseer Ahmed, New Age Islam 8 June 2022 We have discussed the Big Bang theory of creation and the Quranic verses on the same subject in my article: Dr Abdus Salam, Science, the Big Bang Theory of Creation, and the Quran. A reader has pointed out a significant difference between the two as follows: “The Quran's description differs from the Big Bang theory in one significant way. The Quran speaks of bringing together everything before the explosion, while the Big Bang theory is silent about this and in fact, says that nothing existed before. Quran verse 41:11 Moreover, He comprehended in His design the sky, and it had been (as) smoke: He said to it and to the earth: "Come ye together, willingly or unwillingly." They said: "We do come (together), in willing obedience." Science: "At this point of singularity, the physicist Paul Davy said, an extremity was reached and before it, there was nothing - neither matter nor space, nor time or energy. They came into existence at that point. That is the Big Bang creation event." Can you please explain this point of significant difference between the two versions? The Answer: All theoretical science is what we call model-based reality. The models are mathematical models. They represent and describe reality but should not be mistaken for reality itself. Difference between Reality and Model-Based Reality Aristarchus of Samos (l. c. 310 - c. 230 BCE) was a Greek astronomer who first proposed a heliocentric model of the universe in which the sun, not the earth, was at the centre. His theory found few takers, and the geocentric model was retained for 1,700 years afterwards. The geocentric model is intuitive because we don’t experience the earth moving. The belief in the earth as stationary and at the centre, was held by most Greeks since the time of Aristotle. Ptolemy proposed a model in 150 AD, in which the earth stood still at the centre and the planets and the stars moved around it in complicated orbits involving epicycles. Copernicus in 1543, some seventeen centuries after Aristarchus, described a new heliocentric model of the world. Though the idea wasn’t new, its revival was expectedly met with strong resistance by the laypersons but gained wide acceptance from the astronomers. So, was Copernicus right and Ptolemy wrong? No. One can use either model of the universe. As we know from school level mathematics, a difference in the frame of reference is of no consequence. We can assume either the earth, the sun or indeed any other celestial object to be at rest and describe the orbits of the remaining bodies relative to it. Madrassa students are taught the geocentric model because Ahmad Raza Khan Barelvi, a much revered figure in the subcontinent, actively supported it. While I cannot find fault for his support for the geocentric model, his opposition to the heliocentric model was baseless and shows ignorance of the fact that a change in the frame of reference is of no consequence. Those who make fun of the Madrassa products for upholding the geocentric model are as ignorant as the Madrassa products. They also do not appreciate the fact that the difference is only in the frame of reference. A sharp reader may point out that there is no need to even make an assumption of what is at the centre of the universe because mathematically, there is no requirement for the frame of reference to be at the centre. The assumption of what is at the centre of the universe is therefore not required in the mathematical model, although, such an assumption may have influenced the choice of the frame of reference. The Copernican system gained wide acceptance because the equations of motion are simpler in the heliocentric system in which the sun is at rest. If we define more right as that which makes the equations of motion simpler, then in that sense the heliocentric model is righter than the geocentric model. What it proves is that the sun is more of a “ringmaster” than the earth. The reality is that the sun itself is not stationary but is orbiting. However, it does not invalidate the observations made from the assumption that the sun is at rest and all other measurements and observations are made with reference to it. Relative to the sun taken as stationary, the observations and the predictions will remain valid. This discussion is to show the difference between reality and the mathematical model of reality. A frame of reference is a necessity of the mathematical model which imposes certain limitations on modelling absolute reality. The discussion was only to impress that the model is not mistaken for reality. Limitations of the Big Bang Model What mathematicians and therefore theoretical physicists can prove depends on their starting assumptions and not on any fundamental ground truths. The heliocentric model has a starting assumption of the sun at rest. The Big Bang mathematical model of creation unsurprisingly has the Big Bang explosion as the beginning of everything (time, matter, space) before which there was nothing. Using the model, all physical reasoning ceases at the point of singularity. This is the model and not necessarily the reality. There is no way the model can be different unless we can model a cyclical phenomenon of creation, destruction and a new creation built into the starting conditions of a previous creation. Or a model based on the current creation that can accurately predict its destruction followed by a fresh creation from which we can work backwards. We are nowhere near even knowing what the initial conditions had to be that got us our present universe. We are not yet very good at predicting the weather for more than a few days forward or building a mathematical model of consciousness. We are very far from unravelling all the secrets of our universe. If the Quran says that matter did exist before the Big Bang which was brought together and squeezed into a tiny size before the Big Bang explosion, there is no way experimental physics can prove or disprove what was there or not there before the present universe that we know of was created. It is beyond theoretical physics, to model it as we discussed. This is the limitation of science. It is simply not possible for science to know anything about what was there or not there before the Big Bang creation of the universe. It is also possible that the Universe in some other form with life forms existed before it was destroyed and recreated with the Big Bang. These questions are beyond the domain of what science can study and, therefore, prove or disprove. The above, ends the response to the question asked. The discussion that follows explores other related questions of interest. Is Every Quranic Statement Provable/Disprovable By Science Or Mathematics? For example, can there be a mathematical/logical proof of God’s existence? The ability to prove every true statement defines the completeness of science, mathematics and logic. David Hilbert a German mathematician famously declared: “There is no such thing as an unsolvable problem” and “We must know, we will know”. Then came Kurt Gödel a very young and unknown mathematician in his early twenties who proved him wrong immediately and drove the grand old man Hilbert to insanity. Gödel proved for the nth time that age is only a number and not proof of a person’s maturity. Consistency of any formal system of logic implies that if we can prove something, then we shouldn’t be able to prove it’s opposite. If we can prove something and also it's opposite then we can prove nothing and the system is inconsistent and therefore useless. Gödel’s first incompleteness theorem says that any system of logic such as mathematics can be either complete or consistent but not both. So, if it is consistent, then it cannot be complete which means that not every true statement can be proved true within that system of logic. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Also Read: Theory of Big Bang and Cosmic Egg Is Corroborated By both the Upanishads and the Quran --------------------------------------------------------------------------- It, therefore, means that there will be true statements that can be neither proved nor disproved. This means that these are not apriori truths which can be logically deduced from other known truths but these are other truths for which no logical proof is possible. While all logical truths are theoretically derivable and therefore knowable, we can never be sure of knowing all the remaining truths that cannot be logically derived. The limitation of science and mathematics is therefore that not every truth is provable or logically derivable and therefore we cannot be sure of even knowing every unprovable truth. Those who swear by science, logic and mathematics, must always keep these limitations in mind. The truths that are not provable are not only statements such as “God exists” but mathematical theorems as well. A theorem can be disproved by just one counter example but cannot be proved with any number of examples that fail to disprove it. A formal system of logic can adopt the unprovable truths as axioms but this does not solve the problem of unprovable truths in the new system. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury first set forth the Ontological Argument for the existence of God in the eleventh century. Mathematicians Kurt Gödel, Leibnitz, and others have also provided ontological proofs of the existence of God. An atheist philosopher such as Immanuel Kant has ironically ended up proving the logical necessity of God in order to make sense out of his “supreme principle of morality”. What can therefore be said with a great deal of confidence is that short of a complete proof, there is plenty of evidence of God’s existence and there is none which proves His non-existence. Remember, disproving is possible with a single example while any number of examples that provide proof are insufficient. A good student of statistical probability will take this to be sufficient proof of God’s existence. Quantum physics has shown us that we cannot be certain of even the material world at the quantum level and have to rely on probabilistic models which have proved most useful. In this is perhaps another sign for those endued with understanding. Will Allah Recreate The Universe? From Alexander Friedmann’s range of idealized solutions including for a contracting universe, based on the mathematics of General Relativity we can imagine the universe may start contracting at some future date. Studies are making such predictions of a time when the expansion will slow down, come to a halt and then start contracting. What does the Quran have to say about the end of the universe and recreating it? There are several verses that speak of repeating the creation and two verses which are more specific and describe the process as folding up the universe as one may roll up a scroll that will fit into the hand of Allah (an allegoric description to say that it will be squeezed into the size of a ball). (21:104) The Day that We roll up the heavens like a scroll rolled up for books (completed),- even as We produced the first creation, so shall We produce a new one: a promise We have undertaken: truly shall We fulfil it.(105) Before this We wrote in the Psalms, after the Message (given to Moses): My servants the righteous, shall inherit the earth." (30:27) It is He Who begins (the process of) creation; then repeats it; and for Him it is most easy. To Him belongs the loftiest similitude (we can think of) in the heavens and the earth: for He is Exalted in Might, full of wisdom. (39:67) No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him! What the verses mean is that the world will be destroyed and recreated following a process similar to the first creation but perhaps with different initial conditions which means that the new universe can be very different from the previous one. This event will be around the Day of Judgment and the promise that the righteous shall inherit the earth will be fulfilled. The earth in the new creation could therefore be the paradise which the righteous will inherit. Can science predict this event of recreation that the Quran speaks about? If its cause lies in the created universe or in the laws governing it then theoretically it can but not otherwise. If the cause lies in God exercising His will, then it cannot. The Quran says that man can never know when this event will take place and it will come all of a sudden. What this means is that this event will not be predicted from any mathematical model of our universe but by God exercising His will. The other and more elegant way to say the same thing may be to say that the event will take place according to a mathematical model known only to God which will remain undiscovered by man. ----- A frequent contributor to NewAgeIslam.com, Naseer Ahmed is an Engineering graduate from IIT Kanpur and is an independent IT consultant after having served in both the Public and Private sector in responsible positions for over three decades. He has spent years studying Quran in-depth and made seminal contributions to its interpretation. URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-science/big-bang-theory-quran/d/127196 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Islam and Statehood across Time and Space

By Aidyn Allsop, New Age Islam 7 June 2022 Islam Is the World’s Fastest Growing Religion and It’s Second Largest, Set to Become the Largest By 2070 Main Points: 1. Could we apply the notion of Westphalian sovereignty to the followers of Muhammad? 2. Understanding the link between Islam and statehood requires defining both. 3. Relationship between statehood and Islam has grown over the course of history. ----- Examining the link between the religion of Islam and the concept of statehood is a difficult and often muddy task. For one, statehood is not a clearly defined concept; our modern understanding and definitions are not necessarily compatible with early examples. Could we apply the notion of Westphalian sovereignty to the followers of Muhammad for instance? Regardless, it is an important link to examine. Islam is the world’s fastest growing religion and it’s second largest, set to become the largest by 2070. All these followers live under nations and pseudo-states, with some proclaiming themselves Islamic States and Islamic theocracies. Therefore, it would be prudent to see how the religion of Islam and the concept of statehood interact, from the early years of Muhammad to the modern Islamic nations of today. Firstly, understanding the link between Islam and statehood requires defining both, so we can draw comparisons. Regarding Islam, this is a relatively straightforward task. It is the monotheistic religion established by Muhammad, revolving around the Qur’an, which is the book of God; the direct word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. Time and space may impact what is means to be a follower of Islam through changing contexts or differing legal thought. Nevertheless, this definition will be sufficient for our purposes. As for statehood, we must take a more simplified view. As discussed, our modern notions and understanding of a state has changed over time, and one narrow view could not be appropriately applied to different contexts over time and regions. For simplicity, let us use Weber’s definition; a community that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. Though understand it is a disputed topic. Overall, it is clear that the relationship between statehood and Islam has grown over the course of history, no doubt a result of assimilation into the Western international order of state sovereignty. The Time of the Prophet During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, it is a near impossible task to equate the functions of the Believers Movement to statehood. On the one hand, the Prophet did act as a sort of mediator to resolve conflicts, and on the other most functions of a state are difficult to see at the time of Muhammad. We could look to the Constitution of Medina, the foundational legal text for political power in Islam. It does dictate the Prophet’s powers of mediation over all in the Ummah but is not exactly clear on who is included in the Ummah. It of course involves the believers and Muslims, but the designation of Jews is unclear. If the Jews are included in the Ummah, as some scholars suggest, then it follows that we cannot consider the Ummah to be a solely religious community, as the Jews are allowed their own religion (Denny, 1977, p. 44). Rather, it is a political entity with power and responsibilities over those within it. Additionally, the Constitution declares that none within the Ummah may seek war, without the permission of Muhammad. This does fit Weber’s distinction of monopoly over legitimate violence, but marginally, as the text does permit taking personal vengeance. We have established the Prophet did take judicial action over his community, but there is some evidence that he went further and delegated judicial responsibilities to others as well. Ali Abdel Razek notes that ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib was appointed to Yemen with judicial duties by the Prophet, though other sources say this was to collect alms (Raziq, 2012, pp. 60-61). Regardless of the purpose though, raising taxes and judicial action can be attributed to the actions of some type of government or state, this is two of their main functions. Another compelling argument lies in the Prophet’s expansion into other kingdoms. Jihad was assumed under the pretence of conversion, to spread the word of God. But even to the Prophet’s admission, religious conversion cannot be done through force, but rather persuasion. Even for a fledgling state, violence must be available, if even as a last resort. Expansions done under the Prophet can be attributed as an attempt to establish a viable state (Raziq, 2012, p. 72). Again, the Prophet had a monopoly on the use of legitimate violence, all within could not make war. This is not to discredit the Prophet of course, on the contrary, it allowed for the spread of the rule of law to the previous lawless region of Arabia (Rane, 2010, p. 3). His successors would have a template to build upon, the Prophet already having established the legitimacy of an Islamic state and civilisation. The Caliphates After the death of the Prophet, there emerged several conflicting methods to nominate an heir. There are debatable arguments from Shia and Sunni sources on the rightfulness of certain Caliphs, like Ali, whom Shiites consider to be the first rightful one (Triana, 2017). Regardless, we should examine them as a whole. The Caliphates effectively took the foundation laid down by Muhammad and expanded every aspect of the state; political, economic, military et cetera. Here is where we see the formation of the traditional state as it relates to Islam. It should be noted though, the Caliphates may seem at a glance to mirror the traditional nation-state, this is not entirely the case. First and foremost, the Caliphs were successors to the Prophet, the name even meaning successor (Kadi & Shahin, 2013, p. 81). This was a religious role first, and political one second. In practice though, the functions of the Caliphate are indistinguishable from those of a ‘state’. Joffé declares that they only differ in one area, the state will “determine the limits to its expression of sovereignty” while the caliphate will “establish beyond which territorial limits lies the ‘dar al-harb’ – the land of war” (Joffé, 2018, p. 508). This land of war is where Jihad will be permissible, to allow the spread of Islam but also the spread of the Caliphate. This area of difference is notable for the next concept of Caliphates, nationality is largely absent. This is matching with Muhammad’s era, in that Islam is not solely for the Arab people. The important exception to this rule, however, is that the Arabs were the ruling class of the Islamic world (Laine, 2015, p. 123). Important strides were taken to ensure the Islamic world would not fracture and remained a unified political entity, resembling God’s kingdom on Earth. This includes proclaiming Muhammad to be the final Prophet sent by God (Laine, 2015, p. 112). In this regard, the Caliphates indeed differ from states, but more closely resemble the Western empires. This is a very broad examination however. To greater understand exactly what reforms took place under the Caliphates we should examine some of the policies they enacted. For economic growth we can examine Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik (685 – 705), who revolutionised the tax system of the Middle East, and the entire economy of the region. Berg (2017) notes that the Caliph implemented standardized fiscal policy, organized surveys of properties and the usage of tokens to show tax obligations. This encapsulates the new role of the Caliphs as political overseers, not just engaging with the Islamic world on the basis of religion, but now taking to see their polity advance politically and economically. Moreover, these sweeping economic measures distance the Caliphates from the individual-level clientelism of the past, to a robust imperial program of taxation and tribute. Another interesting development of statehood that occurred under the reign of the Caliphs was the judicial system. Initially, much like the time of the Prophet, judicial matters were largely left almost decentralised, with cases being considered irrespective of previous rulings (Berg, 2017). Under the Abbasids though, the judicial system was overhauled into a formal institution. Additionally, the concept of the rule of law was developed through many conflicts between the Qadi judges and Caliphs. The conflict appears as Caliphs, particularly Umayyad Caliphs saw themselves as the ultimate judge of law on Earth, owing to their inheritance of Muhammad’s position. This was in many cases in direct conflict with the rulings and decision-making of the Qadis, whom at the time were ultimately subordinate to the Caliph and his will. Tillier (2014) notes that many scholarly writings appeared because of these conflicts and helped give the Qadis a framework through which their authority solidified versus the Caliph’s (p. 131). We can see in this example an early notion of the separation of Church and State, a staple of most modern democracies. All things considered, the Caliphates advanced and organised economically, politically, culturally, and socially the concept of statehood. Contemporary Statehood The contemporary period as it relates to Islam and statehood is one of much upheaval and change. We can see in this period the abolition of the Caliphate in Turkey, the claims by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant for a new one and the fledgling states like Palestine. Let us begin by looking at the abolition of the Caliphate. There are several key features worth examining here. The first is the decline of pan-Islamism within Turkey at the time. No doubt the events of the First World War had an effect in this regard. There were calls from Arabs for independence from the Caliphate, and as Guida reports, the response to the Caliph’s call for Jihad against the Triple Entente was less than enthusiastic (2008, p. 279). It is evident in this example the rising force of nationalism, which was once notably absent during the early years of the Caliphates now contributed to its downfall. Additionally, scholars like Sayyid Bey declared the Caliphate as absent in Islamic doctrine, given the concept is not mentioned in the Qur’an or Sunnah (p. 279). The Muslim world has taken strongly to the Western notion of sovereignty and nationalism. Ahram points to the Middle East and Africa, and the sheer number of aspiring states that have emerged in the modern period. He notes that interaction between these states and established, sovereign states includes both conflict and communication (2017, p. 346). The contemporary period is one of challenge to the existing states, marked by conflict and perhaps understanding. We can look to the example of Hamas and Palestine for illumination on this point. Vastly underequipped and politically isolated, Hamas understands it needs sponsorship from established sovereign states. Most notably, established Arab states. This is a regime that is focussed on political Islam, with the goal of creating a sovereign state in Gaza, therefore it looks to the largely Islamic Arab states in the region. Of course, with the increasingly globalised world, any recognition of Hamas and Palestine could have disastrous effects for any state which chooses to recognise it (Kear, 2018, p. 241). It is evident here that the pan-Islamism of Muhammad and the Caliphate eras has been firmly replaced by nationalism and state sovereignty. Even for Islam-dominant states, they are wary in disrupting their membership of the international order, even for sympathetic causes. That said, it would be remiss not to mention the proposed goals of the Islamic State group. As some like Delahunty note, the idea of a Caliphate is one many Muslims around the world are sympathetic to, it is a restoration from the side-lining of the Western system of state sovereignty (Delahunty, 2018). IS’s goal of creating a Caliphate signals a threat to the prevailing Westphalian order. It is this order that many Islamic states have assimilated into, and Delahunty notes, just as with other threats like the USSR, assimilation or destruction may be the only outcome. Both the concept of statehood and religion of Islam have undergone many changes and developments over time and space. From the time of the Prophet to today, the relationship between Islam and statehood has evolved and grown. Muhammad’s lifetime saw rudimentary state-level actions like taxation, justice, and warfare. Though these may be explained purely through theocratic lenses, it was a solid foundation for growth regardless. These grew and multiplied under the reign of the Caliphs, until finally many Islamic countries assimilated into the Westphalian order of state sovereignty, guided both by Islam but also by a new sense of nationalism. References Ahram, A. I., 2017. Territory, Sovereignty, and New Statehood in the Middle East and North Africa. The Middle East Journal, 71(3), pp. 345-362. Berg, H., 2017. Routledge Handbook on Early Islam. 1st ed. Abingdon: Routledge. Delahunty, R. J., 2018. An Epitaph For Isis? The Idea Of A Caliphate And The Westphalian Order. Arizona Journal Of International And Comparative Law, 35(1), pp. 1-70. Denny, F. M., 1977. Ummah in the Constitution of Medina. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 36(1), pp. 39-47. Guida, M., 2008. Seyyid Bey and the Abolition of the Caliphate. Middle Eastern Studies, 44(2), pp. 275-289. Joffé, G., 2018. States and Caliphates. Geopolitics, 23(3), pp. 505-524. Kadi, W. & Shahin, A. A., 2013. Caliph, caliphate. In: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press: Princeton, pp. 81-86. Kear, M., 2018. Hamas and Palestine : The Contested Road to Statehood. 1st ed. Abingdon: Taylor and Francis. Laine, J. W., 2015. Meta-Religion : Religion and Power in World History. 1st ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rane, H., 2010. 2 Expansions, developments and movements. In: Islam and Contemporary Civilisation: Evolving Ideas, Transforming Relations. 1st ed. Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, pp. 1-14. Raziq, A. A., 2012. Islam and the Foundations of Political Power. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Tillier, M., 2014. Judicial Authority and Qāḍīs' Autonomy under the ʿAbbāsids. Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean, 26(2), pp. 119-131. Triana, M., 2017. Religion. In: Managing Diversity in Organizations. Abingdon: Routledge. ----- Aidyn Allsop is studying a Bachelor of Government and International Relations, I am particularly interested in the role of government and how this translates across societies, cultures and jurisdictions. URL: https://newageislam.com/islamic-ideology/statehood-time-space-quran-muhammad/d/127189 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

How (Islamic) Mysticism Shaped Kahlil Gibran's Universal Philosophy

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 7 June 2022 All Three Greatest Modern Mystics of the Last Century, Tagore, Iqbal and Gibran, Were Heavily Influenced By Islamic Mysticism ---- There's hardly an educated person who hasn't heard the name of Lebanese-American Kahlil Gibran. Even if you've not read through his masterpiece The Prophet, Bible of the counterculture, I'm sure, you must have flipped through its pages, cursorily going through a few passages that could move you the way Misri Qira'at (Egyptian way of Quranic recitation) can bring tears even to the eyes of a non-believer through its euphonic cadences. Though brought up as a Maronite Christian, Kahlil was syncretic in his approach to religion and believed in the unity of all three Abrahamic faiths, nay, of all religions. It's rather interesting to note that all three greatest modern mystics of the last century, Tagore, Iqbal and Gibran, were heavily influenced by Islamic mysticism. While Tagore, a fringe Hindu as he belonged to the Brahmo Samaj, Iqbal was initially a latitudinarian, who unfortunately became a rabid Muslim towards the fag-end of his life, Kahlil almost expunged his religious denomination and identity after the age of 30. It's said of him that he took love from Hafiz, empathy from Rumi, wisdom from Attar, observation from Sanai, discernment from Khaqani, piety from Nizami, spiritual indifference and playful flippancy from Omar Khayyam, candour from Anwari and language of silence from Bedil. In other words, Kahlil's existence enshrined and entombed the exquisiteness of mysticism. At this juncture when almost every day, we're fighting over petty religious issues and unsuccessfully finding modern science, Genetics (!) and Space technology in our Holy but utterly irrelevant Books, it's time to delve into Khalil's The Prophet, The Madman, Broken Wings, Spirits Rebellious, Sand and Foam, The Procession, among others. No pontification, but when I see people of all faiths pray (sorry, most of them beg) like an ineluctable daily chore and as a hardwired and indoctrinated practice since childhood, I remember Gibran's pithy words on prayers: Your life itself is a prayer; which's a paraphrasal permutation of Rumi's ' Your nobility is your prayer.' When Khalil says, ' What's prayer but the expansion of yourself into the living ether, ' I thank myself for never having prayed in my whole life, rather I always strove to expand myself into the vastness of the cosmos. I remember, when my Arabic-Persian professor and mentor, Dr Zaifa Ashraf was preparing to bid au revoir to the world at Marsden Cancer Hospital, London, she was reading Gibran's ' Thoughts and Meditations '(1960). A lifelong apatheist, she feebly smiled, held my hand and told me, ' it's my prayer ' and she closed her eyes forever. When Kahlil thinks a la Sanai and says, “You are my brother, and I love you. I love you when you bow in your mosque, kneel in your temple, pray in your church. For you and I are sons of one religion, and it is the spirit, " you go beyond the awful limitations of religions and feel the Synchronicity of Mankind (to use C G Jung's phrase from his '“Universal Patterns of Collective Unconscious”. Can we ever forget this gem of a thought that ensued from Kahlil's magical quill on the page of life and spirituality, "Is not religion all deeds and all reflection, and that which is neither deed nor reflection, but a wonder and a surprise ever springing in the soul, even while the hands hew the stone or tend the loom?" At this juncture, when religion, violence, god, rancour, nation, ill-will and all trifling ideas have swept the underdeveloped humans off their feet, Kahlil's books are the greatest and profoundest scriptures that talk of love, humanity, compassion and submission and NEVER claim in an exasperatingly megalomaniac way that I'M THE WAY and WORSHIP ONLY ME AND NO OTHER GOD/S. What rubbish! Humans have forgotten the language of love, reason and silence. We all collectively need to read Kahlil's mystical outpourings to become humane and empathise with our fellow humans. ---- An occasional columnist for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://newageislam.com/islamic-personalities/islamic-mysticism-kahlil-gibran-philosophy/d/127188 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Bury the Hatchet and Move On

By Sumit Paul, New Age Islam 6 June 2022 Padmavat, Panipat and Now ' Samrat' Prithiviraj All Have a Common Leitmotif: Foreigners (Read Invaders) Versus Patriots ----- Prithviraja III, popularly known as Prithviraj Chauhan ---- Perpetuating the recent trend of extolling India's glorious and valorous past, a new movie on Prithiviraj Chauhan's life and heroics has recently hit the marquee. The narrative is predictably nationalistic. It's, therefore, time to get the facts straight for the sake of Truth. “The two armies met in 1191 at Taraori (now in Haryana state), about 70 miles (110 km) north of Delhi. Amid fierce fighting, Muḥammad Ghūrī was seriously injured, and his forces withdrew in disarray. Muḥammad Ghūrī raised a far stronger army consisting of Persians, Afghans, and Turks, and in 1192 he advanced again on Taraori. Prithviraja mustered a vast force to meet Muḥammad Ghūrī, but infighting and enmity within the Rajput camp had weakened his position. Whereas the first battle hinged on the numerical weight that Prithviraja’s forces could bring to bear on the flanks of the Ghūrid army, the second was a study in mobility. Muḥammad Ghūrī used mounted archers to harass Prithviraja’s front lines. When elements of Prithviraj’s army broke ranks to engage in pursuit, they were destroyed by heavy cavalry. The change in tactics confounded the Chauhan forces, and Prithviraja’s host was routed. Prithviraj fled the battleground, but he was overtaken and captured a short distance from the site of the battle. The king and many of his generals were subsequently executed, and the collapse of organized resistance in northern India led to Muslim control of the region within a generation. " (Prithviraj III, Alternate Titles: Prithviraj Chauhan, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Edit History, most recently revised and updated by Kenneth Pletcher) Dr R C Majumdar, one of the greatest historians of India, wrote decades ago, “When a country's history or an episode from history is intentionally written from the angle of foreigners versus patriots, it degenerates into a saga of jingoism. It's not just bad for history but also bad for the country." Padmavat, Panipat and now ' Samrat' Prithiviraj all have a common leitmotif: Foreigners (read invaders) versus patriots. I don't want to delve into the historical discrepancies and factual errors (which are too many to count) in the movie, my point is different. How long shall we continue to flog the dead horse by harping upon the 'fact' that Muslim invaders plundered, raped, converted, pillaged and desecrated 'Mother India?' Enough is enough. A war or battle cannot always abide by strict rules of ethics. In fact, if you follow ethics, you cannot wage a war in the first place. You cannot eat the cake and have it too. Saying that Muhammad Ghori captured and tortured Prithviraj is factually wrong. He was beheaded along with his seven generals at the behest of Ghori without any torture (Read Sacchidanand Sinha's out of print long essay, ' Blunders of Rajput kings'). Moreover, there's no point in calling it a Hindu-Muslim battle. Young Babar himself beheaded Ibrahim Lodhi after defeating the latter in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526. Both were Muslims and at that time Babar was an invader. Will you call Lodhi a patriot, though he had a settled dynasty in erstwhile Bharat? There was no idea of a nation at that time. We learnt the concept of a country from the Brits. Did you know, Hakim Khan Suri, an Afghan Pathan, was the commander (Senapati) of Maharana Pratap's army? Ironically Akbar's Mughal army was led by a Hindu king Man Singh and Maharana Pratap's army was led by a Muslim, so the war wasn't between Hindu and Muslim but between the invaders and settlers. Ibrahim Khan Gardi (died 1761) was a Muslim general of Maratha Empire. An expert in artillery, he initially served the Nizam of Hyderabad, before working for the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. As a general of the Maratha Empire, he commanded a force of 10,000 men, infantry and artillery. He was captured and killed by the Durrani soldiers during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. Ahmad Shah Durrani aka Ahmad Khan Abdali ordered his soldiers to gouge out Gardi's eyes before beheading him. Weren't both Muslims? Wasn't a staunch Muslim (Gardi) unwaveringly loyal to his Hindu masters (Marathas and Peshwas)? What're we trying to project with these cinematic narratives? The objective is blatantly, binary and flagrantly communal. This deliberate historical dichotomy will further alienate a community which is already battered and beleaguered. A palpable pattern seems to be going on, which's quite disconcerting. Here, I'm not projecting Muslims as the Noblest Souls with a Snowhite Character. They too have been the most unscrupulous and perfidious people, but calling and considering all Muslims to be devils is a Fallacy of Generalisation. Let bygones be bygones. Bury the hatchet and forge a new chapter of togetherness and bonhomie. By the way, Prithviraj Chauhan was just a chieftain. Calling him Samrat is a trifle too much. But then, the 'modern' India is obsessed with honorifics and outlandish titles. ---- An occasional columnist for New Age Islam, Sumit Paul is a researcher in comparative religions, with special reference to Islam. He has contributed articles to world's premier publications in several languages including Persian. URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-politics/padmavat-panipat-prithiviraj/d/127181 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Islam, Environment and Eco-Muslim

By Bilal Ahmad Paray, New Age Islam 5 June 2022 Islam Is An Eco-Friendly Religion And Represents A Unique Model For A Transition To Sustainable Development By Focusing On Justice And Harmony Between Human And Nature ----- World Environment Day is celebrated on 5th June across the world . It is important to care for the environment we live in, not only for our health but for our survival too. This special day urges all at both individual and collective level to explore renewable energy, green technologies and restore our ecosystem. Islam is an Eco-friendly religion and represents a unique model for a transition to sustainable development by focusing on justice and harmony between human and nature. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Also Read: Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam Must Discover Their Spiritual Symbiosis for a Conflict-Free, Environment Conscious World ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Islam has a rich tradition of highlighting the importance of environmental protection, ecological restoration and conservation of resources. Islam views the environmental challenges as an indicator for a moral and ethical crisis. Looking at the creation of humans, earth, and cosmos as signs of the Creator is a key in Islamic values . The Qur'anic injunction “And do good as Allah has been good to you. And do not seek to cause corruption on the earth ” (Al Qasas : 77) teaches to live good life on the planet . ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Also Read: Climate Change and Environment Conservation – Concerns of Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism and Other Faiths Are the Same ------------------------------------------------------------------------ There offers a sense of hope and optimism in Islam about the possibility of attaining harmony between human and nature. The planet Earth finds balance, when humans rethink about their lifestyles and mind-sets as stated in the Holy Quran; "Corruption has appeared in both land and sea, because of what people’s own hands have brought." (Al Rum: 41) Hence, the overcoming environmental crisis and mitigating the impact of climate change, from an Islamic perspective is underpinned by defining the role of humans as trustees and stewards of the planet earth. This balance has been disturbed because to human choices which result in over-consumption, over-exploitation and over-use of all its available resources. The ecological crisis is linked to human ethics and values. Today human actions are responsible for its global ecological crisis that reflects on the main environment includes the destruction of natural habitats, loss of biodiversity, climate change, Ozone depletion, Global warming and erosion of soil. Human responsibility is to save and protect livelihood and ecosystem. To celebrate the symphony of life, all humans need to celebrate and protect its biological and cultural diversity. Islamic worldview calls to make a transition for a sustainable society and economy by adopting responsible development and respecting sustainability principles. This change requires a shift in our norms and practices. Islam being an Eco-friendly religion became a powerful part of the solution if humans embody a holistic spiritual view towards mankind. Islamic beliefs, traditions and values provide an effective and comprehensive solution to the current environmental challenges faced by the human race. The Holy Qur’an has a number of specific references to ecology and also contains some important principles for its environmental conservation. The first principle which guides Islamic teachings on environmental sustainability is the concept of trusteeship. Being a responsible guardian, man should take all necessary steps to ensure that the entrusted property is passed on to the next generation in as pure form as it is possible. The holy Qur'an teaches as “And do not mischief on the earth after it has been set in order .” (Al A’raf : 85) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Also Read: Environment And Human Life Are Inter-Dependent in all World Religions ------------------------------------------------------------------------ According to Islam every human being is the custodian of nature, and must live with harmony with other creatures. It is enjoined upon us all to be eco-Muslims. All kinds of corruptions including environmental corruption, environmental damage, reckless exploitation and mismanagement of natural resources are disliked by the almighty Allah (SWT). The Holy Qur’an mentions it as; “And Allah loveth not those who do mischief .” (Al Ma’eda: 64) The exploitation of a particular natural resource is directly related to accountability and maintenance of the available resources . The traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) also deal extensively with various aspects of environment including resource conservation, land reclamation and environmental hygiene. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) discouraged over-consumption, luxury and lavishness and encouraged moderation in all walks of life. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) also forbades destruction of trees and crops even during in war. The Prophet (PBUH) gave high degree of importance towards sustainable cultivation of land, waste minimization, humane treatment of animals, preservation of natural resources and protection of water and wildlife. Planting a tree is a charitable gift which motivates one towards the green environment. The Prophet (PBUH) recognized that natural resources should not be exploited or abused any more. Islam doesn't like wasters (Al-Ar'af : 21) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Also Read: Islam and the Environment: an Indian Muslim’s Perspective ------------------------------------------------------------------------ The Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) are guiding to promote sustainable development around the Globe. The privilege to exploit natural resources was given to the mankind on a guardianship basis, which implies the right to use another person’s property on the promise that it will not be damaged or destroyed. The use of refrigerants (CFC's, halons and freons) should be avoided especially in Masjids as a Green Islam in order to save the protective ceiling "And We made the sky a protected ceiling (canopy) (Qur'an, 21:32) In short, Islam stressed in the preservation of environment without any disturbance and destruction. Let us follow the teachings of Eco-Islamic ideas to make our selves Eco-Muslims for its best, cleanest, green and corrupt free environment. --- Bilal Ahmad Paray hails from Tral and can be reached at paraybilal2@gmail.com URL: https://newageislam.com/islam-environment/environment-eco-muslim/d/127175 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism

Interfaith Relations and Coexistence: The Islamic Perspective

By Eric Schinkel, New Age Islam 4 June 2022 Islam’s History Has at Certain Points Intersected with That of Other Faiths Main Points: 1. Islam's history demonstrates the capacity for considerable flexibility in its interactions with other faiths. 2. Islamic societies across history are notable for their thoughtful consideration and integration of diverse populations to allow for peaceful coexistence. 3. Despite emerging socio-political obstacles, Muslims across history and into the present-day have been able to transcend religious boundaries to maintain a productive dialogue with other faiths. ----- As one of several major world religions, Islam’s history has at certain points intersected with that of other faiths. Even from the time of the Prophet Muhammad’s Qur’anic revelations, thoughtful consideration was given to how the future ‘Islamic movement’ would approach interactions with other faiths, with the Qur’an often acknowledging the other monotheistic Abrahamic faiths as the basis for The Prophet’s new revelations and encouraged a certain collectivism, celebration and collaboration with other faiths owing to this shared heritage: "Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans [before Prophet Muhammad] - those [among them] who believed in Allah and the Last Day and did righteousness - will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve." -Quran, 2:62 Given the extensive diversity of religious faiths and the high percentages of the population that adhere to them – with over 1.5 billion, in 2010, aligning themselves with Islam, 2.1 billion with Christianity, and 1 billion with Hinduism, to name a few – this is an important area of study if we wish to understand the complex social dynamics in interactions between Islam and other faiths. This article will examine a selection of key interactions of interest between individuals and empires of Islamic faith and other religions, in order to evaluate how past interfaith correspondence have influenced those successive, so that we might come to a conclusion about how interfaith relations will evolve into the future. The Pre-Qur’anic Context Given that the topic of “Islamic interfaith relations” depends on the presence of an established Islamic religion or movement, there is little to mention in this section regarding “Islamic” interactions with other faiths. However, there are certain points of interest regarding the religious demographics of Arabia before the Islam movement as it was established by The Prophet emerged. These pre-Islam demographics provide an important context for the understanding of future cross-religious interactions. For religions specifically of Arab origin, polytheism dominated the pre-Islamic scene. Its population organising themselves as a nomadic society composed of a mix of several, disconnected tribes interspersed with a select few sedentary settlements, the culture of polytheism that pervaded the region exacerbated this division through a characteristic “lack of conviction” stemming from fatalistic attitudes promoted by the pagan religions, which severely undermined the notion of unity between Arabians (in contrast to Islam, which would promote strong values of shared community and the unity of Arabs under the banner of monotheistic devotion to Allah). The Qur’an, in part acting as a record or account of the history of the region, describes such attitudes: “And they (the Pagans) say: "There is nothing but only our life in this world. Some of us die, while others continue to live; and nothing causes us to perish but Time (the processes of decline and decay). " But they have no (sure and true) knowledge about this (the real nature and meaning of life and death, and the life after it). They merely follow their conjectures.” -Qur’an 45:24 While these Paganistic religions would eventually be made largely obsolete by the emergence of Islam and the unity of the Arabian peninsula under the Caliphates, they are important to mention in considering past influences on Islam’s approach to organising itself and the people of Arabian peninsula, as well as its future interactions with other religions. Christianity and Judaism are perhaps the most important of these “other religions”. Christian and Jewish communities had a significant presence (considering their status as migrants) in certain parts of Arabia before the emergence of Islam, , with Christianity spreading at some point around 324 CE after Constantinople conquered Byzantium and its influence being further exacerbated by missionaries from the Roman Empire in the northwest regions, while Judaism a foothold as early as the 2nd century CE in the area that would become Medina as its ruling tribes adopted the religion. Of particular importance here is the Jewish-dominated Medina, which becomes a centrepiece of Islamic interfaith relations in the years to come. In Early Islam The importance of Islam as a continuation of previous monotheistic traditions, and not a competitor, was stressed from the very beginning of The Prophet Muhammad’s Qur’anic revelations in 610 CE. The impacts of this on Islam’s relations with other faiths, ignoring socio-political relations and considering only the religious context, are varied. On the one hand, it acts as an opening and encouragement for dialogue between believers of this new movement and the existing faiths, especially as the Qur’an is inclusive of followers of the other monotheistic religions as Ahl al-Kitāb (“people of the book”) On the other hand, this creates certain logistical issues regarding inconsistencies in what each “branch” of this monotheistic tradition believes, with significant potential for conflict. Perhaps the best example of the Qur’an’s recognition of Jesus Christ as a prophet, but not as the son of God or as part of the trinity of “Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit” that constitute “God” in the Christian view – which is a belief held with strong conviction by Christians. This also conflicts with the Jewish view, which tends to disregard Christ as both the son of God and a prophet. Ideological tolerance or consistency between the faiths is also dependent on the other monotheistic religions accepting The Prophet Muhammad’s claim that the Qur’an is the direct word of God – which is a contentious point of view for many Jews and Christians. Hence, while Islam’s acknowledgement of other traditions opens the door for peace and tolerance between them, it also inadvertently sets the foundations for ideological conflict. In terms of the socio-political aspect of interfaith relations, Islam and the other monotheistic traditions tended to coexist peacefully in the early days of movement. Extensive efforts were made on the part of individuals such as The Prophet Muhammad himself to ensure peace in the region and ease concerns of the potential persecution of non-Muslims in what was fast-becoming an Islam-dominated region. Perhaps the most notable of these efforts is the Constitution of Medina, which reportedly included such tenets as the belief that “the security (dhimmah) of God is one: the granting of ‘neighbourly protection’ (yujir) by the least of them (the believers) is binding on them” and that “the peace (silm) of the believers is one; no believer makes peace apart from another believer”. Another significant charter is the Ashtiname of Muhammad, which extends similar promises of protection to a Christian monastery in Sinai. These charters are regarded as being demonstrative of “the Islamic approach to conflict resolution” and of The Prophet Muhammad’s commendable character which Muslims are often encouraged to emulate. Hence, the Early Islamic period saw considerable peace and cooperation across faiths, thanks to the efforts made by the emerging Muslims to integrate the believers of other monotheistic traditions into both the religion itself (especially through their acknowledgement in the Qur’an) and into the Caliphates that were established after the death of The Prophet. However, the seeds for future conflict were planted via inconsistencies across the specific content of the religions, which at times caused outrage and an unwillingness to cooperate – or else, a willingness to use these ideological differences as a justification for wars waged with ulterior motives in mind. In Classical Islam Such a situation occurred at the turn of the millennium as Pope Urban II incited the Crusades. Islamic expansion under the Abbasid Caliphate threatened the Christian powers in Europe, and the conquer Jerusalem gave the Christian forces sufficient reason to wage a war motivated by other factors; “Not all of them, indeed, were there on behalf of the Lord”. The Crusades spanned nearly 200 years and severely “damaged inter-Christian relations”, worsening the divide between the perceived “Western” and “Middle-Eastern” cultures and setting a precedent for future Christian-Muslim interactions being characterised by “aggression, intolerance, and misunderstanding” Such strained relations emerged not only as a result of the Crusades themselves but also due to the Christians’ and Muslims’ demonisation of each other: with Christians being encouraged to base their view of Islam on misrepresented, malicious distortions of the religion’s tenets,while Muslims obviously had their perception of Christians coloured by their incitement of the conflict. The impacts of the conflict and the division it created between Christians and Muslims are still relevant in the present-day. One of the motivating factors for the Crusades was the increasing influence of the Islamic world – its traditions, technologies, and innovations – over other cultures. The Classical era of Islam saw significant intercultural exchange and correspondence as the empire expanded under the Abbasid Caliphate. Islam thrived in this era, pioneering revolutionary advances in medicine, agriculture and scholarly practices. With the increased capacity for trade and the establishment of new trade routes, these advancements were spread far from the Caliphate and were able to influence and inspire similar developments in Western regions. One of the most interesting (and positive) dynamics between Islam and other religions during this period is the peaceful coexistence of Islam and Hinduism in India. Interested in leveraging the attractive opportunities for trade and production in the Indian basin (something that the pre-Islamic Arabs were also drawn to the region for), Islamic influence spread into India from as early as 711 CE with the conquest of Sind, which after several hundred years advanced Islamic influence in the region such that the sultanate of Delhi was finally established in the early 1200s. The flow of Muslim migrants into the region and the economic growth of the region led to exponential rates of emerging urbanisation, which made day-to-day interactions between Muslims and Hindus even more likely. The result was a living situation that incentivised collaboration between the two distinct populations, which manifested in the exchanging of ideas relating to philosophy, arts, architecture, literature, and more. Specific arrangements were made by the ruling Muslims of the Delhi sultanate to ensure that the existing Hindu population would be allowed to integrate and participate comfortably in society alongside the Muslims – they often shared places of worship, and there was little pressure from either side to convert others to a religion, besides one’s own interest in doing so. A wide range of outcomes for interfaith interactions are observed during this period, which demonstrate Islam’s capacity to facilitate both peaceful coexistence and armed conflict with other religions, both outcomes occurring under the same dynasty and within a relatively short period of time. Contemporary Developments In the Classical era, we could identify the beginnings of a complex and increasingly versatile and varied Islamic tradition capable of taking on several forms at once. This continues into the present-day, where processes of globalisation coupled with the vastly expanded spread of Islam across the world have spawned a wide variety of Muslim approaches to interfaith correspondence. Of particular importance in the modern era is not just how Muslim entities themselves approach interfaith interactions, but also how Muslims generally are perceived by other those hailing from other cultures and faith. With the consequences of the Crusades still ingrained in the culture of the West, the growth of mass-media outlets enabled by technological innovations has led to a rise in sensationalist depictions of Islam made to elicit fear from Western populations. This in turn feeds into the issue of Islamic sectarianism and the internal divide between Muslims in the present-day; which itself was one of the motivating factors for Western sensationalism in the first place. The Iranian revolution “extremely conditioned U.S. thinking about the violent, anti-American nature of fundamentalist Islam”, solidifying Islam as a perceived “security threat to American [and more generally, Western] interests”. Such conflict has led to animosity from both sides in certain circles, making it difficult for interreligious dialogue between Muslims and Christians, for example. However, there have been efforts to stay true to the original approach towards peaceful coexistence demonstrated by The Prophet Muhammad, even despite these political difficulties. An “interreligious movement” promoting collaboration across religions has emerged and taken shape in an organised fashion. While globalisation processes have had several negative impacts on interfaith relations through over-exposure leading to sensationalism, it has also allowed for easier and more regular interreligious discourse, leading to more productive and mutually beneficial outcomes. It could be argued that interreligious understanding and tolerance is at its peak, given the frequency with which religious leaders meet and the transformation of metropolitan centres into cosmopolitan societies composed of diverse demographics from all religious faiths. In Summary Given these positive developments and their continued escalation, contrasted with the de-escalation of conflict between extremist entities, perhaps owing to the increasingly densely-populated cosmopolitan societies in which we are forced to coexist, the outlook of interfaith relations between Islam and other religions is promising. Islam in its earliest forms was a strong proponent of peaceful dialogue and intercultural collaboration. In later years, it demonstrated its capacity to be versatile in order to overcome challenges. This versatility has continued to be tested into the modern era, where, despite frequent setbacks, interfaith relations have still managed to flourish. It can be safely assumed that the Islamic approach to interfaith issues will continue to facilitate positive interactions with other religions that will prove beneficial for all parties involved. ---- Eric Schinkel is studying Education at Griffith University to teach secondary school students history, including the history of Islam and its role in the development of the world. URL: https://newageislam.com/interfaith-dialogue/interfaith-coexistence-islamic-perspective/d/127171 New Age Islam, Islam Online, Islamic Website, African Muslim News, Arab World News, South Asia News, Indian Muslim News, World Muslim News, Women in Islam, Islamic Feminism, Arab Women, Women In Arab, Islamophobia in America, Muslim Women in West, Islam Women and Feminism